Theme 3: Social Relationships REFERENCES

Cumming and Henry, 1961

disengagement theory - as people as, they face an inevitable and gradual tendency to disengage and withdraw from social roles/activities, this includes preoccupation with self and decreased interaction with others

Havighurst, 1961

activity theory - successful ageing comes from when adults stay active and socially engaged, rather than withdrawing

Carstensen, 2000

socioemotional selectivity theory - as we age and become more aware of limited time horizon, our motivations and social networks shift. We prioritise and maximise emotionally meaningful relationships

Antonucci and Akiyama, 1987

convoy model - views social networks as 'convoys' that accompany individuals across the lifespan, changing with life transitions

Blau, 1964

Social exchange theory - social interactions involve cost and benefits that we access as we establish and sustain relationships. Relationships are maintained when perceived rewards outweigh any costs

Ferraro and Farmer, 1995

social compensation model - suggest people adapt to losses by replacing or strengthening remaining relationships. Needs active compensation

WHO, 2020

part of their definition of healthy ageing includes the ability to build/maintain relationships and contribute to society, not just physical capability

Rawlins, 2004

late life friendships are more important than kinship, because we chose our friends

Pinquart and Sorsensen, 2003

family is structurally determined, associated with negative social exchange and dependence, whereas friends we select, is more synonymous with good time and independence

Bookwala et al., 2014

presence of close friends can significantly protect health after widowhood - lower depressive symptoms, better self-rated health

having a family member as a confidante didn't provide the same level of health protection

Mackowicz, 2018

even in the latest stages of life (centenarians) - reported strong social networks, often built through activities, said that social relationships significantly contributed to their sense of wellbeing

Zhao et al., 2019

during perimenopause, higher family support was significantly associated with fewer menopausal symptoms

Lang, 2002

older adults who received emotional support from their children report great life satisfaction

Fitzroy et al., 2022

intimacy spans romantic, sexual, platonic relationships, reflecting a spectrum of human connection

HelpDementia, 2019

specifically for those with dementia when language becomes fragmented, physical contact can act as a bridge, makes individuals feel secure

Age Scotland, 2023

many older adults remain sexually active into their 70s, 80s, and even 90s

Chang et al., 2019

having a supportive partner boosts wellbeing in those experiencing menopause

Ganong et al., 2012

sexual activity can boost wellbeing and even reduce depression for both older men and women

Gierveld, 1987

loneliness is the subjective negative feeling associated with someone's perception that their relationships are qualitatively/quantitatively deficient

Victor et al., 2009

social isolation is a more objective measure of loneliness, it's a lack of relationships/social contacts

ONS, 2010

over half people aged 75+ live alone

Age UK, 2014

270,000 aged 65+ in England go a week without speaking to a friend/family member

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2 out of 5 say that TV is their main source of company

Holt-Lunstad et al., 2015

loneliness' effect on mortality is comparable to the impact of well-known risk factors such as obesity and smoking, increase risk of early mortality by 26%

Kuiper et al., 2015

loneliness increases risk of developing dementia by 50%

NHS, 2023; Puyane et al., 2025

loneliness puts people at greater risk of poorer mental health, including depression, anxiety, sleep disorders, cognitive decline

O'Donnell et al., 2004

loneliness and low social interaction are predictive of suicide in older age

Schulz et al., 2006

caregiver burden is linked to increased depression, illness, poorer quality of life

Calasanti and King, 2007

caregiving is difficult for women carers due to higher expectation

Russell, 2007

elderly male carers feel invisible, but are fully committed to the role - just use a different style (more managerial)

Schulz and Williamson, 1991

male carers are more depressed overtime, whereas female carers more stable. This could be because men tend to mask emotions to begin with, meaning they build up

Van Ours, 2021

men often report experiencing greater isolation at retirement age, yet this eventually plateaus

(reflects loss of work-related identity)

Puyane et al., 2025

women are more likely to report higher levels of mental distress associated with loneliness/isolation

(potentially due to stronger relational self concepts and caregiving identities)

National EoL Care Intelligence Network, 2014

44.5% of people who die do so in their usual place of residence

Gladstone, 1995

found themes such as 'marriage as a memory' 'changed marriage' for spousal dementia carers.

Loss of companionship despite person still being present, them feeling like a friend, ambiguous relationship HOWEVER not always the case, some reported no change

Carers UK, 2020

during COVID, only 30% of carers felt they had sufficient support networks, 48% felt unable to keep in contact with neighbours, family, friends

Ross et al., 2003

positive reframing helps with caregiver burden and supports adaptation to the role, can manage stress through support from others

Quinn et al., 2010

deriving a sense of meaning helps to cope with spousal caregiver burden, motivated by love and not obligation

Donnellan et al., 2016

dementia carers experience high levels of isolation

Lynn, 2005

functioning:

Cancer - functioning remains stable until point of recovery or decline, this process can be quick or take years

Frailty/Dementia - functioning greatly decreases and just continues to do so gradually until point of death, this process can by up to 15 years

Wang et al., 2023

grandparenting can expand social networks and reduce loneliness

Akhter-Khan et al., 2022

positive effect of grandparenting seen in both men and women

Yang and Yin, 2022

grandparenting associated with improved health and wellbeing outcomes

Paul and Braun, 2024

interventions aiming to enhance social relationships include befriending schemes, intergenerational programmes, remote social contact, though evidence quality varies

Carers Trust, 2021

informal carer = anyone who cares, unpaid, for a friend/family member, who due to illness/disability can't cope without their support

NHS, 2010

58% informal carers are adult children (sandwich generation), 26% are spouses

Windle, 2011

the process of effectively adapting to or managing sources of stress/trauma, capacity to 'bounce back' from adversity

Wilks and Croom, 2008

social support helps carers be less negatively affected by stress

Donnellan et al., 2015

spousal dementia carers can achieve resilience when well supported by family, and especially friends

HOWEVER, family support may become intrusive or overwhelming if over-intensive

Braun et al., 2010

reciprocity of positive martial communication in dementia carers facilitates resilience. Carers whose husbands used positive communication reported less depression