All chapter 2 terms

Biological Psychologists

The scientific study of the links between biological and psychological processes

Dendrite

Receives messages and conducts impulses toward the cell body

Axon

Sends messages to other neurons or to muscles or glands

Myelin Sheath

A layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next.

Action Potential

A neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

Refractory period

Resting period

Threshold

The level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

All-or-none response

A neuron's reaction of either firing or not firing

Synapse (synaptic gap)

Microscopic fluid-filled space between the synaptic knob of one cell and the dendrites or surface of the next cell

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons; binds to receptors on receiving neurons

Reuptake

Sending neuron reabsorbs the excess neurotransmitters

Endorphins

"Morphine within"--natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure

Agonist

Binds to a receptor site, stimulates a response

Antagonists

Drugs that block the function of a neurotransmitter

Nervous System

The body's speedy, electro-chemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems

CNS (central nervous system)

Brain and spinal cord

PNS (peripheral nervous system)

The sensory and motor neurons that connect the CNS to the rest of the body

Nerves

Bundled axons that form neural "cables" connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs

Sensory Neurons

Neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord

Motor Neurons

Neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands

Interneurons

Neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

ANS (autonomic nervous system)

A division of the PNS that controls involuntary body functions; organ function such as the heart

SNS (sympathetic nervous system)

Arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations (flight or fight)

Parasympathetic nervous system

Calms the body, conserving its energy

Reflexes

Specific patterns of motor response that are triggered by specific patterns of sensory stimulation

Endocrine System

The body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

Hormones

Chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues

Adrenal Glands

A pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress

Pituitary Glands

The endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands

Lesion

Tissue destruction. A brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue

EEG

An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp

CT Scan

A series of X-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice through the body

PET

A visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task

MRI

A technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images that distinguish among different types of soft tissue; allows us to see structures within the brain

fMRI

A technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans

Brainstem

The oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions

Medulla

The base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing

Thalamus

The brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla

Reticular Formation

A nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal

Cerebellum

A large structure of the hindbrain that controls fine motor skills

Limbic System

Neural system located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives

Amygdala

Two lima bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion.

Hypothalamus

A neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward

Hippocampus

A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage

Left Hemisphere

Controls the right side of the body; analytical, language, math

Right Hemisphere

Controls the left side of the body; creative, intuitive, spacial

Corpus Callosum

The large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them

Cerebral Cortex

The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center

Pons

A brain structure that relays information from the cerebellum to the rest of the brain; coordinates movement

Glial Cells

Cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons

Frontal Lobe

A region of the cerebral cortex that has specialized areas for movement, abstract thinking, planning, memory, and judgement

Parietal Lobe

A region of the cerebral cortex whose functions include processing information about touch

Occipital Lobe

A region of the cerebral cortex that processes visual information

Temporal Lobe

A region of the cerebral cortex responsible for hearing and language

Motor Cortex

An area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements

Somatosensory Cortex

Area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations

Association Areas

Areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking

Plasticity

The brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience

Split Brains

A condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers connecting them

Broca

Left frontal lobe: associated with expressive language

Wernicke

Language comprehension

Consciousness

Our awareness of ourselves and our environment

Cognitive Neuroscience

The interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language)

Monozygotic Twins (Identical)

Identical twins formed when one zygote splits into two separate masses of cells, each of which develops into a separate embryo

Dizygotic Twins (Fraternal)

Occur when two eggs get fertilized by two different sperm, resulting in the development of two zygotes in the uterus at the same time

Molecular Genetics

The subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes

Interaction

The interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity)

Epigenetics

The study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change

Heredity

Passing of traits from parents to offspring

Natural Selection

A process in which individuals that have certain inherited traits tend to survive and reproduce at higher rates than other individuals because of those traits

Mutation

A change in a gene or chromosome

Hypnosis

A social interaction in which one person suggests to another that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur

Posthypnotic Suggestion

A suggestion, made during a hypnosis session, to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized; used by some clinicians to help control undesired symptoms and behaviors

Dissociation

A split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others

Circadian Rythm

The biological clock; regular bodily rythms (for example, of tempeture and wakefulness) that occur on a 24 hour cycle.

REM Sleep

Rapid eye movement sleep, a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active.

Alpha Waves

The relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state

Sleep

Periodic, natural loss of consciousness--as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation

NREM Sleep

Non-rapid eye movement sleep; encompasses all sleep stages except for REM sleep

Delta Waves

The large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep

Superachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN)

A pair of cell clusters in the hypothalamus that controls circadian rhythm. In response to light, the SCN causes the pineal gland to adjust melatonin production, thus modifying our feelings of sleepiness

Insomnia

Recurring problems in falling or staying asleep

Narcolepsy

A sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times.

Sleep Apnea

A sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings

Night Terrors

A sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; unlike nightmares, night terrors occur during Stage 4 sleep, within two or three hours of falling asleep, and are seldom remembered

Dreams

A sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person's mind

Manifest Content

According to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream

Latent Content

According to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream

REM Rebound

The tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation (created by repeated awakenings during REM sleep)

Substance Use Disorder

Continued substance craving and use despite significant life disruption and/or physical risk

Psychoactive Drugs

Chemicals that affect the central nervous system and alter activity in the brain

Addiction

Compulsive drug craving and use, despite adverse consequences

Withdrawal

The discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug

Tolerance

The diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect

Depressents

Drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body functions

Alcohol Use Disorder

Alcohol use marked by tolerance, withdrawal, and a drive to continue problematic use

Barbiturates

Drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment

Opiates/Narcotics

Mimic endorphins, increase pleasure and decrease pain (opium, heroin, morphine, methadone, codeine)

Stimulants

Drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful amphetamines, cocaine, and Ecstasy) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions.

Amphetamines

Drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes