Social Problems: Chapter 15

Conflict, War, and Terrorism

War (most violent form of conflict): organized armed violence against a social group in pursuit of an objective.

• Modern wars fought in populated areas.

• War contributes to other social problems such as disease, death, and disability, crime and immorality, psychological terror, loss of economic sources, and environmental devastation.

Global Conflicts

Before industrialization and technological innovations, war occurred at a small scale. Now, it is a global scale.

• Interstate wars make up the least amount of armed conflict

Global Conflicts: War & Social Change

War resulted in groups becoming villages, villages becoming chiefdoms, and chiefdoms becoming states. A state is a power of institutions whose functions include (1) use of force, (2) control of territory, and (3) maintenance of internal order.

Influence of industrialization on wars: (1) [Cohen] Industrialization decreases proneness to conflict and (2) Industrialization increases the destruction of conflict.

• Space Force as a Military Branch (Trump)

Globalization impacts the nature of war since economies and security across nations is so intertwined now.

• The North American Treaty Organization (NATO, 1949): Alliance between U.S, Canada, and European nations against the soviet union — marks the beginning of the cold war (U.S v. Soviet Union, 50+ years)

  • Pros: (1) Pathways for conflict within membership and (2) collaborate for support, information, and materials.

  • Cons: (1) Obligated to help members and (2) 2% GDP to defense and contributions to NATO common fund.

Global Conflicts: Economic Costs of Military Spending

Global Military Spending (2019): Highest spending since 1988, $1.92T or $249/global person. 

• U.S contributes the most due to competition between them and Soviet Union in Cold War; RANKED - (1) U.S (38%/$732B), (2) China ($261B), (3) India ($71.1B) and (4) Russia ($65.1B)

The U.S is a global leader in arms transfers, with 79% of trades between 2007-2017. 

The only U.S wars that haven’t resulted in greater GDP are Iraq and Afghanistan. 

• Cost of violence: $14T ($1,000+/global person) — $2.9T to military spending

  • Indirect costs result from broken infrastructure, broken healthcare, and easier passage of disease (refugees, asylum, displaced people)

Structural Functionalist Perspective

Structural Functionalist Perspective: War is functional by (1) creating states, (2) social cohesion/shared enemy, (3) increase in employment, (4) innovations for civilians, (5) encourages social reform, (6) equal rights, and (7) alternative paths for disadvantaged groups.

• Rally round the flag effect: social cohesion during war

• Dual-use technology: defense funded innovations that have civilian applications (Healthcare instruments)

• The military was desegregated before the civil rights legislation was passed.

Conflict Perspective

Conflict Perspective: Emphasizes that war stems from groups, countries, or regions competing for control or differing ideologies.

• War benefits elites by:

  • Corporate elite: taking control of losing countries’ materials — profit no matter what

  • Political elite: government officials labelled heroes and gain prestige

  • Military elite: prestige and employment for officials

Private Military and Security Contactors (PMSCs)

• Pros: (1) cost effective and increases efficiency, and (2) flexibility

• Cons: (1) PMSCs do not need to obey civilians the same way formal military are to preserve military-civilian relations and (2) for profit and do not have the same standards as formal military

  • Blackwater Worldwide Incident

    • Swiss government and United Nations formed standards through: (1) 2008 Montreux Document and (2) 2010 international code of conduct association for private security service providers.

• Rise in PMSCs in past 2 decades.

Symbolic Interactionist Perspective

Symbolic Interactionist Perspective: How meanings and definitions influence attitudes and behavior toward war.

• Children learn to appreciate war when learning about the revolutionary war and being encouraged to celebrate, (2) paying with violent toys and games, or (3) watching violence in media.

A positive connotation of war stems from (1) language [war on drugs, war on crime, war on poverty] and (2) propaganda with patriotism.

• Propaganda is taken differently by different groups; 76% of black Americans believe the Iraq War was a mistake.

• Deaths are referred to as causalities instead of murders; killing is more acceptable when derogatory labels are placed on the enemy

  • Dower: U.S and Japan depicting each other degradingly during WWII

News coverage impacts mental health. 

Conflict Perspective (Feminist Theory)

Countries with little gender equality are more likely to be involved in conflict, particularly because of the social association between men and military violence. 

DoD is now requiring gender neutral standards for branches

• Option 1: Men and women are measured based on effort — women are seen as incompetent.

• Option 2: Men and women are compared to job requirements, leading to less women in physical jobs — women seen as competent

15% of the military is women, yet only 7% are admirals or generals.

Transgender service members

Causes of War

(1) Conflict over land and resources, (2) conflict over ideology and values, (3) racial, ethnic, and religious hostilities, (4) defense against hostile attacks, (5) revolutions and civil wars, (6) nationalism, (7) Terrorism, (8) roots of terrorism, and (9) america’s response to terrorism.

Causes of War: Conflict over land and resources

Klare: wars will increase as natural resources diminish.

• Conflict is most likely to occur when (1) borders and easy to cross and (2) borders are not defined by a natural barrier

Oil has been a source of conflict in the Middle East. Rare earth minerals used to make phones may be the next conflict mineral, or minerals that perpetuate abuse and conflict.

Water/irrigation has also led to wars in Egypt, Mesopotamia, India, and China.

Arab Springs protests broke out into civil wars in Egypt, Yemen, Libya, and Serbia between the Sunni (North) and the Shiite (South).

Causes of War: Conflict over values and ideology

WWII (Democracy v. Fascism) and Cold War (Capitalism v. Communism)

• Conflicts over values and ideologies are less likely to result in compromise due to human conviction.

Countries with similar values are less likely to wage war on each other.

• Democratic Peach Theory: Democratic nations are less likely to wage war on each other

Causes of War: Racial, Ethnic, and Religious Hostilities

Constructivist explanation of ethnic conflict: blames leaders

Primordial explanation of ethnic conflict: blames history and roots

Chirot: Ethnic hostilities result from retribalization — ethnic members grouping with “extended family of an ethnic group”

Religious differences also make up a portion of wars:

• Islamic Jihad (Holy War): 9/11 and other attacks

• Same religion but different sects: Civil wars in Yemen and Serbia (Sunni v. Shiite)

  • Martyrdom: Dying for one’s beliefs

Gurr’s Relative Deprivation Theory: war is more likely to occur when what a population expects and receives has a noticeable gap.

Causes of War: Defense against hostile attacks

Security Dilemma: Raising one states security calls for other states to fix the imbalance and instate protections of their own. This creates a cycle, which creates tension, and possibly conflict. 

• France & Britain declaring war on Germany after they invaded Poland; WWI Germany and Russia; and Pearl Harbor

• After terrorist attacks, U.S paired with Britain and others to invade Iraq due to threats of destructive weapons — of which was false information.

  • Although U.S withdrew, they contributed to the ongoing civil war

Causes of War: Revolutions and Civil Wars

Revolutions: Sweeping changes that alter distribution of power in society

• U.S; Russia; North & South Korea; North & South Sudan; Algeria; and Zimbabwe

Civil Wars: Do not have such large scale societal changes

• May take years following a war to classify it

• Revolutions and civil wars are most likely when (1) the government is weak and divided, (2) the government is not responsive to citizens, and (3) strong civilian leaders present and willing. 

  • Civil wars in Syria and Yemen

Causes of War: Nationalism

Some countries engage in war for national pride, such as Germany turning to nationalism when they were excluded from the world. Nationalism is pride despite detriment to other countries. 

• Association between nations feelings of national exclusion and aggressive foreign policies 

Nationalism is polarizing, but it is effective in group identities and political support. 

• A recent decline in nationalism is associated with the fear that it is related to social group division and abuse.

Causes of War: Terrorism

Terrorism: Use of violence against civilians to publicize a cause/ideology, achieve religious freedom, release of prisoners, or rebel against governments — it is unlikely to be completely defeated.

• For 2 decades, terrorism has been one of America’s biggest threats

Transnational Terrorism

• 9/11 was one of the most deadly, perpetrated by Al-Qaeda. When their leader was defeated, more groups arose, indicating an ongoing conflict.

• Department of State: Can classify and has identified 65 terrorist organizations. They can freeze assets, prosecute, and prevent entry.

Domestic Terrorism

• Trickier because rights have to be taken into account. 

• Domestic white-nationalist terrorism is U.S’ greatest threat (Jan 6)

• Definitions depend on social meanings: Roof shot up a black church and received no terrorist charges

Causes of War: Roots of Terrorism

Focusing on the macro of terrorism wasn’t working, so scholars moved onto looking at the micro.

• Borum: How people move from radicalization to violent extremism can be best understood through the terrorists’ mindset.

  • Counter violent extremist efforts (CVE): Multifaceted approach to understanding grievances, psychosocial vulnerabilities, social networks, perceived rewards, and experiences with incarceration.

Causes of War: America’s response to terrorism

Defensive strategies: increasing security at airports and in the military

Offensive strategies: bombing, infiltration, and preemptive strikes

• Critical of high costs; we would need 300 tragedies at the same scale as the Boston marathon shooting to justify costs.

2 Incidents have raised concerns: (1) Manning leaked information about Iraq and Afghanistan and (2) Snowden leaked information about the National Security Surveillance program, which was deemed unconstitutional later on.

Causes of War: America’s response to terrorism (Detention centers or “Black Sites”)

Guantanamo Detention Center "“Gitmo”: primary detention center for potential terrorists and Al-Qaeda

• 26 have been in since 2002 and have not been charges; the Geneva Convention requires some protections for prisoners

Senate’s report on the CIA’s program: (1) torture is present, (2) lied to gain approval, (3) provided false information, (4) releasing inaccurate information to the media, and (5) wrongfully detaining people and using innocent people as collateral

• 48% of Americans (mostly republican) state that torture could be justified

Americans 2x likely to be killed by an animal than terrorist; 2x likely to be killed by a domestic terrorist than an international one.

Antidefamation League (ADL): increase in domestic terrorism over years (78% of all terrorist attacks)

• 2019 had the highest amount of white supremacy propaganda ever recorded

Neo-Nazi Organizations:

• The Base: American based in Russia

• Atomwaffen Division: Origins in Florida; now in Germany, UK, and Ukraine.

Social Problems of War: Death & Disability

Many civilians and opponents die during war, but the media typically covers American troops and their struggles.

• Those who did survive may be disabled or diseased

• 1997 Mine Ban: destroy stockpile in 4 years, clear minefields in 10 — all countries except U.S, China, India, Israel, and Russia

• Death and disability depletes labor force, creates orphans, and burdens taxpayers with the care of these two groups

Excessive force has been used by american troops to gain support and justify terrorism

Social Problems of War: Rape & Displacement of Women and Children

Before and during WWII, Japanese officials forced women into being ‘comfort women.’

• Since 1998, women have paid for the conflict between the congonese government, Ugandan, and rwandan rebels. 

Feminists emphasize that rape is also a racial and gender domination strategy. 

• ISIS rape against Yazidi minority in Iraq and Syria

• Darfur’s Law: 4 male witnesses to prosecute rape—women who have sex outside of marriage punished

Refugee trauma can be passed through (1) the self-fulfilling prophecy, (2) children caring for parents during grief, and (3) (most important) parental stress buildup

2019: 57% of refugees came from syria, afghanistan, and South Sudan

• 1/3 of children live in war areas and do not have access to school

77% of children born in camps do not have a birth certificate.

Social Problems of War: Social-Psychological Costs

Conflict disrupts well-being and family functioning

• Guerilla warfare: costly to soldier wellbeing — during last half of Iraq war, soldier suicides were more common than civilians’ for the first time since Vietnam. 

  • More members committed suicide than those who died in the Iraq and Afghanistan wars. 

PTSD: sleep disturbances, nightmares, flashbacks, and poor concentration

• Associated with alcoholism, family violence, divorce, and suicide

• PTSD among soldiers is hard to confirm: (1) Lag between trauma and symptoms and (2) social stigma getting help.

  • Only ½ of soldiers seek treatment

Suicide rates among those who used VA resources were 30% less in 10 years.

Social Problems of War: Diversion of Economic Resources

Annual DoD budget raised to $705B, almost as much as all other funding combined. Just 1% could pay for thousands of bills, scholarships, salaries, and solar energy. 

Social Problems of War: Destruction of Environment

Ecocide: Intentionally destroying the environment

• Use of conflict minerals from Africa

Poaching for military money, water contamination, and burn bits

War is seasonal, so during rainy, harvest, and winter seasons, war is halted. Global warming is beginning to impact the flow of war. 

Thermonuclear war is a threat and could create a nuclear winter, blocking sunlight and creating low temperatures in the northern hemisphere.

• Military practice and disposing of weapons harm the environment.

1997 Chemical Weapons Convention: destroy all chemical weapons within 25 years—the U.S. delayed 10% due to environmental pollution concerns.

Strategies for Action

(1) redistribution of economic resources, (2) creation of world government, (3) activities of the UN, (4) mediation and arbitration, and (5) arms control.

Strategies for Action: Redistribution of economic resources

Shanahan: Wealthy nations help reduce social and economic conflict by providing assistance to poorer countries

• U.S. military spending far outweighs foreign assistance.

Strategies that reduce population growth improve well-being

Annan (former secretary general): It is not poverty but inequality between social groups that brings conflict.

Strategies for Action: United nations

Founded in 1945 after WWII, the UN’s early mission was to end war. 

• The Security Council is the most powerful branch; it can enforce punishments for international law and use force.

UN Criticisms:

• Developing countries supply troops, while developed countries have the most influence by mostly contributing finance.

• Failed operations such as Somalia

• Must wait for a consensus

  • Delay can be devastating; Genocide Convention of 1948—the UN required to prevent genocide—failed Rwanda in 1994

• Since representatives are representing their own country, they may be after their own interests.

Annan: Recommends including some developing countries in the Security Council to shift the distribution of power.

Strategies for Action: Mediation and Arbitration

Mediation and Arbitration are both nonviolent forms of compromise

Mediation: A neutral third party generates ideas to resolve conflict.

• Can create long-term barriers once the mediator is removed; peace more likely if there is a military winner

Arbitration: A neutral 3rd party hears both sides and comes to an agreement that the two parties agree in advance to accept.

• Permanent Court of Arbitration: Disputes territory, treaties, human rights, commerce, and investment.

Strategies for Action: Arms control & Disarmment

In the 60s, the U.S. and the Soviet Union had a competition in nuclear weapons.

• Mutually assured destruction (MAD): if both countries feel they will lose, neither will initiate a war

  • Peak in 1966: U.S had 32,000 warheads and bombs

Necessity for control increased: (1) reduction of defense spending, (2) weapons production and deployment, and (3) armed forces.

• Limited Test Ban: Do not test nuclear weapons in water, air, or space

• Strategic arms limitations: limits development of nuclear weapons

• Strategic arms reductions: reduce weapons to 1,550

Arms control has shifted to preventing spread of nuclear weapons

Strategies for Action: Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty

Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty (1970): governs spread of nuclear weapons to non-nuclear countries

• Verify compliance through inspections

• South Sudan, India, Israel, and Pakistan have not signed; the last 3 have nuclear weapons

• Iran and Syria claim their nuclear reactors are for energy

The U.S. and Russia have the most nuclear weapons

Treaty with Iran: The U.S. eliminates sanctions, and Iran reduces their nuclear production to only energy.

Strategies for Action: problems of small (conventional) arms

1 Billion weapons around the world in 2017; international arms trade was $6.5B, with the top 3 contributors making up 40% (U.S (18%), Italy, and Brazil).

• Controlling arms is not easy because there are legitimate reasons (law enforcement, military), and they are easy to afford, use, conceal, and transport illegally.

The State Department Of’s Office of Weapon Removal and Abatement administers a program that supports the destruction of small arms and weapons. 

• $2.7B destroying weapons globally—a weapon in the wrong hands could be disastrous.