AP psych unit 7

MEMORY

is the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information.

INFORMATION-PROCESSING MODELS

are analogies that compare human memory to a computer's operations.

ENCODING

is to get information into our brain

STORAGE

retains that information;

RETRIEVAL

later enables you to get the information back out.

PARALLEL PROCESSING

is the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously;

Sensory Memory

Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin created a different model: 1. We first record to-be-remembered information as a fleeting

we process information into SHORT-TERM MEMORY, where we encode it through rehearsal.

SHORT-TERM MEMORY

• Finally, information moves into

• LONG-TERM MEMORY

• WORKING MEMORY

• is a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.

Atkinson's and Shiffrin's model focused on how we process our EXPLICIT MEMORIES, or memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and

"declare" (declarative memory).

Explicit Memories

EFFORTFUL PROCESSING

is encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.

AUTOMATIC PROCESSING, which happens without our awareness, produces IMPLICIT MEMORIES (nondeclarative memory).

Automatic processing and implicit memories

• George Sperling's experiment suggested two sensory memory ideas: I(eves) CONIC MEMORY is a fleeting sensory memory of visual stimuli.

• I(eves) CONIC MEMORY

E(ears)CHOIC MEMORY

is a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds.

George Miller

proposed that short-term memory can retain about seven information bits plus or minus 2.

CHUNKING

is organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically.

Ancient Greek scholars and orators also developed ___ which are memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices. Can be acronyms.

MNEMONICS

Spacing Effect

The tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention thanks achieved through massed study or practice

TESTING EFFECT

enhances memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading information. Also sometimes referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhancer learning.

SHALLOW PROCESSING

encodes on a very basic level, such as a word's letters of, at a more intermediate level, a word's sounds.

Deep Processing

Encodes semantically, based on the meaning of words.

HIPPOCAMPUS,

a temporal-lobe neural center located in the limbic system, is the brain's equivalent of a "save" button for explicit memories.

FLASHBULB MEMORIES

is a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event. Usually vivid and confident with which we recall memories.

LONG-TERM POTENTIATION

is an increase in a cell's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation.

RECALL

is a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.

RECOGNITION

is a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test.

RELEARNING

is a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again.

• RETRIEVAL CUES

• is the association with other bits of information about your surroundings, mood, seating position, and so on.

• PRIMING

• is the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory.

MOOD-CONGRUENT MEMORY

is the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one' current good or bad mood.

SERIAL-POSITION EFFECT

is our tendency to recall best the last (a recency effect) and first items (a primacy effect) in a list.

ANTEROGRADE AMNESIA

(50 First Dates) is an inability to form new memories

RETROGRADE AMNESIA

(Dory) is an inability to retrieve information from one's past.

PROACTIVE INTERFERENCE

occurs when prior learning disrupts your recall of new information.

RETROACTIVE INTERFERENCE

occurs when new learning disrupts recall of old information.

Sigmund Freud proposed that we

REPRESS painful or unacceptable memories to protect our self-concept and to minimize anxiety but the repressed memory can linger for later cue retrieval during therapy.

MISINFORMATION EFFECT,

or incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event.

SOURCE AMNESIA

is the attribution of a wrong source on an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined.

DEJÀ VU

is that eerie sense that "I've experienced this before." Cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience.

COGNITION

is the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering and communicating information - by appreciating our human smarts

Concepts

Are a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

Prototypes

Are a mental image or best example of a category

Robert Sternberg have identified five components of creativity:

1. Expertise 2.

Imaginative thinking skills 3. A venturesome personality 4. Intrinsic motivation 5. A creative environment

ALGORITHMS

are step-by-step procedures that guarantee a solution.

Nature resorts to

HEURISTICS when algorithms take too long. This is a simpler thinking strategy based on judgments.

• INSIGHT

is a sudden realization of a problem's solution;

CONFIRMATION BIAS

is a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence.

MENTAL SET

is a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past.

Normally, we follow our

INTUITION, our fast, automatic unreasoned feelings and thoughts using automatic information processes.

REPRESENTATIVENESS HEURISTIC

is judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information.

An AVAILABILITY HEURISTIC

is estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory;

OVERCONFIDENCE

is the tendency to be more confident than correct - to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.

• BELIEF PERSERVERANCE

• is clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited.

FRAMING

is the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments.

PHONEMES

are the smallest distinctive sound units in a language. B, a, and t are phonemes.

GRAMMAR

is the system of rules that enables us to communicate with one another. Sounds (semantics) and sentences (syntax).

The BABBLING STAGE

, beginning around 4 months of age, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language.

ONE-WORD STAGE.

This is the stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words.

TELEGRAPHIC SPEECH

early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram - "go car" - using mostly nouns and verbs.

APHASIA

is the impairment of language, usually caused by left-hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding).

Damage to the left frontal lobe, known as ——, would result in the person struggling to speak words while still being able to sing familiar songs and comprehend speech.

Brocas Area

Carl Wernicke discovered that after damage to an area of the left temporal lobe, known as ____, would result in people speaking only meaningless words.

Wernicke’s Area

Benjamin Lee Whorf contended that language determines the way we think, known as

LINGUISTIC DETERMINISM.