SOC 1005 Final

Race

A social idea used to group people by physical traits like skin color or facial features. It’s not biological but is used to justify inequality and create hierarchies.

Scientific racism

Fake science used to claim that some races are better or smarter than others. It includes things like IQ tests and skull measurements to support racism.

Eugenics

A belief that society should control who can have children to “improve” the population. It was used to justify sterilizing people and separating races.

Phrenology

A false science that claimed you could tell how smart or moral someone was by the shape of their skull. It was used to support racist ideas.

Slave codes

Laws that controlled enslaved people and made sure they had no rights. These laws helped keep slavery in place and protected slave owners.

Redlining

A practice where banks marked Black neighborhoods as “dangerous” and refused to give loans there. This led to poor schools and housing that still affects people today.

Affirmative action

Policies meant to help people who have been discriminated against (like Black or Latino students) get access to jobs or education.

Culture of poverty

A harmful idea that blames poor people for being poor, saying it’s because of their behavior or values, instead of looking at unfair systems like redlining or underfunded schools.

Racialized policing

When police focus more on certain racial groups, especially Black people, even when there’s no evidence they commit more crimes. Examples include stop-and-frisk.

Mass incarceration

The huge number of people in prison, especially Black people. Even though Black people are 13% of the population, they make up 32% of prisoners.

Xenophobia

Fear or hatred of people from other countries. It often leads to unfair treatment of immigrants.

Exploitation

When people are used unfairly for someone else’s gain. For example, workers create value but don’t get paid fairly, while owners get rich.

Contradictory class locations

People who are in between classes—like managers—who have some power over workers but still don’t own businesses or wealth like capitalists., share the interests between both 2 classes.

Class consciousness

When people understand their social class and realize they share struggles with others in the same class. It can lead to collective action for change.

Capitalist class (Bourgeoisie)

The small group of people who own businesses, land, or stocks. They make money from owning things, not from working.

Managerial authority

The power that managers have to control workers. They often act on behalf of the capitalist class to increase profits.

Skilled workers

Workers who have special training or education (like engineers or professors). They may have more control over their work but still don’t own wealth or capital.

Working Class (Proletariat)

People who don’t own businesses or wealth and must work for wages. They have little control over their jobs and are often exploited under capitalism.

Intergenerational income mobility

How likely it is for someone to earn more or less money than their parents. In the U.S., it’s hard for people born poor to become rich.

Wealth inheritance

When money, property, or assets are passed down from parents to children. In the U.S., most wealth is inherited, which keeps rich families rich.

Meritocracy

The idea that people succeed based on talent and hard work. Your class notes say this is a myth because success often depends on race, class, and inherited wealth.

Occupational segregation

When certain jobs are mostly done by specific groups (like women or people of color), often leading to unequal pay and opportunities.

Credentialism

Requiring degrees or certificates for jobs, even when they may not be necessary. This can block people without access to expensive education.

Fordism

A system of mass production started by Henry Ford. It uses assembly lines and unskilled labor to make products quickly and cheaply.

Taylorism

A method of managing workers by timing and organizing their tasks to make them more efficient. It treats workers like machines.

Division of labor

Breaking down work into smaller tasks so each worker does one part. This increases efficiency but can reduce job satisfaction.

Assembly line

A way of making products where each worker does one small task as the product moves down a line. It speeds up production but limits worker control.

Labor segmentation

Dividing workers into different groups (like skilled vs. unskilled) with different pay and job security. This keeps workers from uniting.

Workplace autonomy

How much control a worker has over their job. Skilled workers may have more autonomy, but most workers have little say in how they work.

Post-Fordism

A shift from mass production to more flexible work, often using technology and fewer workers. It can lead to less job security.

Deskilling

When jobs are broken into simple tasks so that workers don’t need special skills. This makes them easier to replace and lowers wages.

Imperialism

When powerful countries control weaker ones to take their resources, labor, or markets. It creates global inequality.

Colonization

A form of imperialism where a country takes over another area, settles there, and controls its people and resources.

Antagonistic cooperation

When countries or groups work together even though they are also in conflict. For example, the U.S. and China trade but also compete for power.

Debt trap

When a country or person borrows money and can’t pay it back, leading to more borrowing and dependence on lenders.

Proxy war

A war where powerful countries support different sides but don’t fight directly. They use other countries or groups to fight for them.

United Nations

An international group that tries to keep peace and solve global problems. But powerful countries like the U.S. can block decisions with their veto power.

NATO

A military alliance led by the U.S. and European countries. It was created to protect against threats and spread U.S. influence.

Military-industrial complex

The close relationship between the military and companies that make weapons. It encourages high military spending.

IMF

(International Monetary Fund) An organization that lends money to countries in crisis. In return, it often forces them to cut public services.

Structural adjustment policies

Rules from the IMF or World Bank that make countries cut spending, privatize services, and reduce support for the poor to get loans.

Market liberalization

Removing government rules so businesses can operate freely. It often leads to cuts in public services and more inequality.

The World Bank

An international group that gives loans to poor countries for development. But its loans often come with harmful conditions.

BRICS

A group of countries (Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa) that work together to challenge Western economic power. These countries challenge the power of Western institutions, which are mostly controlled by the U.S. and Europe.

Multipolarity

A world where power is shared by several countries, not just one or two. It contrasts with U.S. dominance.

Sanctions

Penalties one country puts on another—like blocking trade or freezing money—to punish or pressure them. U.S. sanctions on countries like Venezuela caused economic collapse.

Genocide

The mass killing of a group of people based on race, religion, or ethnicity. Your notes mention genocide in Gaza, supported by U.S. military aid to Israel.

Political party

An organized group that tries to gain power through elections. In the U.S., both major parties support policies that help the wealthy.

Interest aggregation

When political parties or groups combine different people's needs and demands into one political program or platform.

Gramscian consent

The idea that people accept unfair systems (like capitalism) not just through force, but because they believe it's normal or in their best interest—often shaped by media, schools, and culture.

The New Deal

A set of programs in the 1930s that created jobs and social safety nets like Social Security. It was funded by high taxes on the rich and helped reduce inequality.

Political resignation

When people stop participating in politics because they feel it won’t make a difference. Your notes say 40–50% of Americans don’t vote.

Neoliberal consensus

Both major political parties agree on cutting taxes, shrinking government, and supporting the rich—even if it hurts public services like healthcare and education.

Class dealignment

When working-class people stop supporting the political party that used to represent them. For example, Democrats now get more support from wealthy, educated voters.

Union decline

Unions used to be strong in the 1970s, but now they’re much weaker. Legal barriers and employer resistance make it hard to organize, which hurts workers’ rights and pay.

Collective bargaining

When workers negotiate together (usually through a union) with employers for better pay and working conditions.

Productivity-pay gap

Since the 1980s, workers have become more productive, but their wages haven’t increased. Most of the extra money goes to employers and the rich.

Civil society organizations

Non-government groups like charities, churches, and nonprofits that provide services like food, shelter, and childcare—especially when the government fails to do so.

Political action committee

A group that raises and spends money to influence elections. After the Citizens United decision, rich people can give unlimited money to PACs.

Gerrymandering

Redrawing voting districts to help one political party win more seats, even if they don’t get the most votes.

Means-testing

Only giving government help (like Medicaid or food stamps) to people below a certain income. If you earn just a little more, you lose the benefit.

De-commodification

Making basic needs like healthcare or housing available to everyone, not just those who can afford to buy them.

Progressive taxation

A tax system where richer people pay a higher percentage of their income than poorer people.

Austerity

When the government cuts spending on public services to reduce debt. This often hurts low-income people the most.

Financialization

When the economy focuses more on making money through finance (like stocks and loans) instead of producing goods or services. It increases debt and inequality.

Liberal welfare states

Countries like the U.S. where government help is limited and mostly given only to the very poor. People have to prove they need help.

Social democratic welfare States

Countries like Sweden where everyone gets benefits like healthcare and education, no matter how much money they make. These systems aim for fairness and equality.

Universal benefits

Government programs that give the same help to everyone, like free public school or healthcare, no matter how much money they make.

State legitimacy

The idea that people accept the government’s power because it provides order and services (like schools and police), even if it also keeps inequality in place.

Social safety net

Government programs that help people when they’re struggling—like unemployment checks, food stamps, or housing help