Psychology Relationships Evolutionary explanations for partner preferences

What is the evolutionary explanation of sexual selection?

Idea that partner preference evolved because they increased reproductive success and helped pass on genes

Why do humans seek certain trats in partners according to the evolutionary theory?

Because traits that improve offspring survival and reproductive success are naturally selected (help organisms survive and or reproduce making genes more likely to be passed onto offspring)

What are two types of sexual selection relevant to human relationships ?

Inter sexual selection and intra sexual selection

What does inter and intra selection explain?

They explain why males and females evolved different partner preferences and mating behaviours

What is anisogamy ?

The difference in male and female gametes as there are many sperm but limited eggs leading to female choosiness (influencing mating strategies of females, why they are more cautious when choosing mate)

What is inter sexual selection?

Selection between sexes where one sex (usually females) chooses a mate based on desirable traits / characteristics

Why does anisogamy make females the choosier sex?

Because pregnancy is a high investment process so females must avoid mating with an unsuitable partner

Why are females typically choosier in intersexual selection?

Because they invest more biologically in reproduction and risk pregnancy

What traits do males typically prefer in females according to evolutionary theory?

Youth and physical attractiveness which signals fertility

Clear skin

Large breasts (for breast feeding)

Waist to hip ratio (of ideal 0.7)

Large hips (child bearing)

What traits do females typically prefer in males according to evolutionary theory?

Resources , status and ambition which signals the ability to provide for offspring

Financial stability

Commitment

What is intra sexual selection?

Competition within one sex (usually males) for access to mates often leading to traites like increased size, aggression and strength

Why do males compete with each other in intra sexual selection?

Because males maximise reproductive success by gaining access to multiple fertile females

(the best way to pass on there genes it to gain access to females that are likely to reproduce e.g young)

What traits in males are favored through intra sexual selection?

Strength , dominance , competitiveness and risk taking

What is the difference between inter and intra sexual selection?

Inter‑sexual selection

where one sex (usually females) chooses a mate based on desirable characteristics or behaviours, such as displays of resources, status, or courtship behaviours.
This reflects female choosiness because females invest more in reproduction.

Intra‑sexual selection

where members of the same sex (usually males) compete with each other for access to mates.
This competition favours traits like strength, dominance, aggression and risk‑taking, helps males defeat rivals and gain access to fertile females.

What traits are favoured in males through intra sexual selection?

Strength , dominance, competitiveness and risk taking

How does sexual dimorphism relation to intra sexual selection?

Males evolved to be larger and stronger due to competition while females did not need these traits

What is sexual dimorphism?

Difference in form, colour , size, and behaviour between males and females

What did buss investigate in his cross cultural study?

Sex differences in mate preference across 33 countries

What did buss find about female partner prefrences?

Females preferred males with resources status and ambition

What did Buss find about male partner prefrences?

Males preferred younger , physically attractive females signalling fertility

How does Busses findings support evolutionary explanations of sexual selection?

It shows consistent sex differences across cultures suggesting evolved preferences

What is one limitation of buss?

Social desirability bias could be present as he used self report data

Temporal validity - conducted in the 1990s gender roles have changed since then and become more fluid

Ethnocentrism - due to globalisation most countries are influenced by western gender norms so may reflect cultural stereotypes

What are strengths of Buss’s cross cultural study?

Ecological validity - as this is evident in real world where young youthful women get into relationships with old wealthy men

High reliability - Buss used interviews as well as questionnaires and found the same pattern

Cross cultural consistency - suggesting universiality

What was the aim of Clack and hatfields study?

To test sex differences in willingness to engage in casual sex

What did clark and hatfield find about male responses?

Around 75% of males agreed to casual sex with strangers

What did Clark and Hatfield find about female responses to casual sex?

0% agreed to casual sex with a stranger

How does Clark and Hatfield’s study support evolutionary theory?

Shows that females are choosier due to higher reproductive investment while males pursue more mating opportunities

What are strengths of Clark and Hatfilds’s study involving casual sex?

High ecological validity - field experiment in real life on a university campus

Strongly supports the evolution theory

Replicable- replicated across different culture and found the same results increasing the reliability

What are limitations into Clark and Hatfield’s sudy involving casual sex?

Ethical concern - lack of informed consent and invasion of privacy which could have lead to embarrassment

Sampling bias- all participants were american college students so not representative

Demand characteristics - men could have felt like they had to say yes because of social expectations , they wanted to be socially rewarded

What did Ronay an dvon Hippel investigate with skateboarders? What did they find?

Investigated whether males take more physical risks in the presence of an attractive female

Found male skateboarders took greater risks when observed by an attractive female

How does Rony and von hippel support intra sexal selection?

It shows males display risk taking to compete for female attention

What studys support intra sexual selection?

(males compete)

Ronay and Von Hippel (skateboarding)

What studys support inter sexual selection?

(Females are choosy)

Clarke and hatfield (American collage)

Buss (cross cultrual)

What were strengths and weaknesses of Ronay and con Hippel (skateboarding) study?

Strengths

High ecological validity - Real skateboarders in a real skateboard park

Controlled manipulation - they were either watched by male researcher or attractive female

Limitations

Sample bias - young male skateboarders in Australia is not representative of all males

Cultural bias- conducted in australia which has holds western norms so cannot be generalized

Why is the evolutionary theory criticised for lacking temporal validity?

Modern day women can provide for themselves , reducing the importance of male resources

Why is the evolutionary theory criticized for heteronormativity?

Heteronormativity - assumption that being hetrosexual is the defalt / norm

It only explains hetrosexual reproduction and ignors LGBTQ reslationships

Why is the evolutionary theory considered reductionist ?

Resources complex human relationships to reproductive drives

What is the baby face hypothesis? How is it relevant to attraction?

people are attracted to baby like features (large eyes , soft skin ) because they trigger nurturing responses

Making people seem more approachable increasing initial attraction

What did Berry and MacArthur say about baby like features? What does it do to attraction?

They act as social releasers that evoke protectiveness

Positive judgments increase the likelihood of forming a relationship

What did Langlois et al find about attractive people? And how does it relate to attraction?

Attractive children and adults are judged more positively then unattractive individuals by both children and adults showing its innate

(babies have no socialisation / cultural bias)

People are biologically motivated to choose partners that appear more fertile

Which facial features are universally preferred?

Symmetry, avaragness, sexal dimorphism (difference between sexes - physical characteristics) youthfulness

Why are symmetrical and average faces preferred?

They may signal normal development and genetic fitness

What is the halo effect? And how is it relevant to attraction?

A cognitive bias where attractive people are assumed to have positive traits

Positive expectations make them more desirable as partners

Who created the halo effect?

Dion et al

What is the “what is beautiful is good” stereotype?

The assumption that attractive people are kind, sociable , intelligent and trustworthy

What did Kim find about attractiveness judgments? And how does this support attraction theories?

Students in the US and Korea rated attractive people as more friendly and trustworthy .Theses traits increase perceived relationship potential

What does the matching hypothesis propose? How is this relevant to attraction?

People choose partners with similar level attractiveness

Matching reduces fear of rejection and increases relationship stability

Who proposed the matching hypothesis ?

Walster

What did Walster et al find about dating choices?

People asked out the most attractive partners, regardless of there attractiveness

Physical attractiveness strongly influences initial romantic choices

What are the different factors effecting attraction?

Self disclosure

Physical attractiveness (matching hypothesis , halo effect)

Evolutionary explanations

What did Aharon et al find about attractive faces? How is it relevant to attraction?

Attractive female faces activated dopamine rich reward areas in the brain

Shows that physical attractiveness triggers biological reward systems , motivating pursuit and increasing attraction

What did cunningham find about the baby faced features and why is this relevant?

Baby faced female features correlated with attractiveness and increased prosocial (voluntary actions e.g helping / comforting) behaviour from males

Shows that men are more motivated to engage with and support attractive partners Ho

How does feingold’s meta analysis support the matching hypothesis and why is this relevant?

Found that rela couples were equally attractive

Showing that there are patterns in the real world in relation to partner choice

Why does feingold increase external validity for attractiveness theories?

External validity (can be generalized to other situation , populations and settings) as is used real couples

Findings reflect actual relationship behaviour not artificial lab pairings

How does landy and Singall support the halo effect and why is this relevant?

Found that attractive students essays were graded higher showing that attractiveness influences social judgments which can unintentionally influence other tasks e,g romantic attraction

Why does landy and sigall give halo effect predictive validity?

Shows that attractiveness affects real world outcomes

Attractive people may receive more positive attention, increasing opportunities for relationships

What did taylor et al find about online dating and why is this relevant?

People pursued the most attractive partners

Challenging the matching hypothesis and shows attractiveness dominates modern dating behavior

Why does subjectivity reduce the validity of attractiveness research and why is this relevant?

Attractiveness varies between individuals

Making it harder to generalise findings about what causes attraction

How is attractiveness research culturally biased and why does this matter?

Western beauty standards may not apply elsewhere

This limits universality of theories about attraction

How does cunningham demonstrate cultural bias and why is this relevant?

Used American males which is ethnocentric

Causing the findings to not reflect global attraction patterns

How do attractiveness theory’s show gender bias and why is this relevant?

Focus on how men rate womens looks

Ignores female perspectives reducing validity of attraction theories

What type of gender bias is present in attraction research / theories. And how does it reduce validity

It exaggerates gender difference reinforces stereotypes about women being valued mainly for appearance

Lowering validity as most of the research is mainly based on men’s preferences/ perspective