Unit something

Agricultural Revolution

Term that refers to dramatic improvements and modernization of farming techniques and technologies, leading to increased crop yields and improved diet and health.

capital

Money that is used for investment.

entrepreneurs

A person who organizes and operates a business.

hydropower

Energy that is generated by the flow of water.

textile

Of, or pertaining to cloth or to the production of cloth.

cottage industry

Economic term for the production of goods in the private homes of peasants to earn additional income.

spinning jenny

One of the first industrial machines developed to speed up cloth production and help begin the Industrial Revolution.

steam engine

Designed by James Watt in 1769, the first generator of artificial power, making the Industrial Revolution possible.

Claremont

Robert Fulton’s first successful steam-powered boat that traveled up the Hudson River in 1809.

Rocket

George Stephenson’s award-winning steam-powered railroad engine that won a British competition in 1829.

Greenwich Mean Time (GMT)

The first system of standardized world time, dividing the globe into 24 time zones.

Factory System

A system of producing goods in factories using powered machinery, replacing cottage industries.

iron law of wages

David Ricardo’s idea that wages are governed by supply and demand like any other commodity.

Great Exhibition (Crystal Palace)

The world’s first World’s Fair held in London in 1851 showcasing global inventions.

Irish Potato Famine

The fungus-caused potato crop failure from 1845–1852 that led to mass starvation, especially in Ireland.

Corn Laws

British tariffs on imported grain that kept bread prices high for urban workers.

tenement

A run-down, overcrowded apartment building in poor urban areas.

cholera

A bacterial disease usually caused by contaminated water.

typhoid

A bacterial disease usually caused by contaminated water. (T)

tuberculosis (TB)

A highly contagious bacterial lung infection that devastated crowded 19th-century cities.

sanitation system

A system of pipes supplying clean water and removing waste.

Metropolitan Police of London (Bobbies)

One of the first modern police forces organized by Sir Robert Peel.

Factory Acts

British laws aimed at improving working conditions for women and children.

Mine Acts

British laws banning women and children under 10 from working in mines.

exploitation

Treating someone unfairly to benefit from their labor.

labor unions

Organizations formed by workers to protect and advance their rights.

Combination Act

British law banning labor unions and collective bargaining.

strike

A labor protest where workers refuse to work to force demands.

Luddites

British workers who destroyed machinery as protest; also a term for people afraid of technology.

bourgeoisie

The urban middle and upper classes; described by Marx as oppressors of workers.

proletariat

The urban working class; described by Marx as the oppressed class.

Great Reform Bill of 1832

Law that expanded voting rights to urban middle-class men in Britain.

franchise

The right to vote.

suffrage

The right to vote.

domestics

People, usually women, employed to work in households.

universal manhood suffrage

The right of all adult men to vote.

People’s Charter

British petition demanding voting reforms that gained millions of signatures but was rejected.

abolition

The movement to end slavery and the slave trade.

Congress of Vienna

Diplomatic meeting from 1814–1815 to restore European order after Napoleon.

Prince Metternich

Austrian leader whose conservative policies dominated post-Napoleonic Europe.

restoration

The return of a monarch or previous regime to power.

legitimacy

The quality of being lawful or rightful.

balance-of-power

Diplomatic goal of preventing one nation from dominating Europe.

Troppau Protocol

1820 agreement pledging military aid against revolutions, opposed by Britain.

ideology

A system of ideas shaping political and economic beliefs.

conservatism

Ideology supporting tradition, private property, and free enterprise.

liberalism

Ideology supporting personal liberty, individual rights, and equality before the law.

“The government that governs best, governs least.”

John Stuart Mill’s summary of liberal philosophy.

free trade

Policy supporting unrestricted international trade.

capitalism

Economic system based on private ownership of businesses.

socialism

Economic theory supporting state control of major resources to ensure equality.

subjugate

To bring under control, often by conquest.

Utopian Socialism

Socialist movement advocating ideal communal societies.

New Lanark

Robert Owen’s model Utopian Socialist factory community in Scotland.

July Monarchy

Reign of King Louis Philippe in France from 1830–1848.

Provisional Government

A temporary government formed after the overthrow of a regime.

National Workshops

French employment program guaranteeing work to unemployed Parisians in 1848.

June Days

Violent 1848 uprising in Paris after closure of National Workshops.

French Second Republic

French government from 1848–1852 following the July Monarchy.

Louis Napoleon Bonaparte

Nephew of Napoleon who became Emperor Napoleon III.

Second Empire

Authoritarian French government under Napoleon III from 1852–1870.

autonomy

Self-government for a region.

Magyar

A synonym for Hungarian.

reactionary

Opposition to political or social reform.

Diet of Frankfurt

1848–1849 German meeting attempting national unification.

Kleindeutsch

Faction favoring German unification under Prussia without Austria.

Grossdeutsch

Faction favoring German unification including Austria.

Giuseppe Mazzini

Italian nationalist leader advocating unification.

Young Italy

Italian nationalist movement founded by Mazzini.

Carboneri

Secret Italian nationalist organizations seeking unification.

Romanticism

European art movement emphasizing emotion, passion, and individualism.