psych unit 1-5 exam 1

Scientific method

A hypothesis which leads to a theory

Empirical research

Research based on observations

Structuralism (Wundt)

Introspection; how does that make you feel? first school of psychology, analyzed basic components of the mind

Functionalism (James)

How psychology helped people survive

Psychoanalysis (Freud)

early childhood experiences affect adulthood/the unconscious mind

Gestalt Psychology (Kohler, Koffka, & Wertheimer)

the entire sensory experience matters more than individual experience

Classical Conditioning (Pavlov)

Natural association of stimuli and reflexes and learned associations

Behaviorism (Watson)

objective analysis of the mind is impossible, so focus on observable behaviors

Operant Conditioning (Skinner)

behaviors are affected by their consequences, reinforcement & punishment

Humanism (Maslow & Rogers)

people have capacity for good, hierarchy of needs, client-centered therapy

The Cognitive Revolution (Chomsky)

moving away from behaviorism and towards internal mental processes

Cross Cultural Psychology (Sanchez)

most study subjects are western, educated, industrialized, rich, democratic and leads to bias

Biopsychology

structure & function of nervous system and how it affects behavior

Sensation & Perception

How we detect and interpret sensory information.

Personality Psychology

Examines traits, patterns, and individual differences.

Social Psychology

Studies how people influence and interact with others.

Health Psychology

Focuses on how psychology impacts health and illness.

Clinical Psychology

Diagnosis and treatment of mental disorders.

Industrial & Organizational Psychology

Applies psychology to workplace behavior and productivity.

Sports & Exercise Psychology

Studies mental aspects of sports, exercise, and performance.

Forensic Psychology

Applies psychology to legal and criminal justice systems.

Theories vs. Hypotheses

Theories are broad explanations; hypotheses are testable predictions.

Deductive Reasoning vs. Inductive Reasoning

Deductive moves from general to specific; inductive moves from specific to general.

Case Studies

In-depth analysis of one person or a small group.

Naturalistic Observation

Watching behavior in its natural environment.

Survey Research

Collecting data through questionnaires or interviews.

Archival Research

Using past records or data sets for analysis.

Cross-Sectional vs. Longitudinal Research

Cross-sectional compares groups at one time; longitudinal follows the same group over time.

Correlational Research

Examines relationships between variables without manipulation.

Correlation vs. Causation

Correlation shows a relationship but doesn't prove cause and effect.

Correlation Coefficients

Numerical values showing strength and direction of relationships.

Positive vs. Negative Correlations

Positive means both variables increase/decrease together; negative means one rises as the other falls.

Scatter Plots

Graphs showing data points and possible correlations.

Confounding Variables

Outside factors that may affect results.

Causation

Demonstrates cause-and-effect relationships through experiments.

Experiments

Controlled studies manipulating variables to test effects.

Experimental vs. Control Groups

Experimental gets the treatment; control does not.

Bias & Blinding

Bias = researcher/participant expectations; blinding reduces bias by hiding conditions.

Independent vs. Dependent Variables

Independent is manipulated; dependent is measured outcome.

Sampling

Choosing participants to represent a population.

Reliability vs. Validity

Reliability = consistency; validity = accuracy of measurement.

Statistical Significance

Likelihood that results are not due to chance.

Research Ethics

Rules ensuring studies are safe, fair, and respectful to participants.

Dendrites

Branch-like structures that receive signals from other neurons.

Soma

The cell body that contains the nucleus and maintains the neuron.

Axon

Long fiber that carries signals away from the soma.

Terminal Buttons

End of the axon that releases neurotransmitters.

Myelin Sheath

Protective coating that speeds up signal transmission.

Synapse

The gap where communication occurs between neurons.

Astrocytes

Support neurons and maintain the blood-brain barrier.

Oligodendrocytes

Form myelin in the central nervous system.

Schwann Cells

Form myelin in the peripheral nervous system.

Microglia

Defend against infection and remove waste.

Electrical

Signals within the neuron.

Resting Potential

Stable charge when the neuron is inactive.

Action Potential

Electrical impulse that travels down the axon.

Chemical

Signals between neurons using neurotransmitters.

Glutamate

Main excitatory neurotransmitter.

GABA

Main inhibitory neurotransmitter.

Acetylcholine

Involved in movement, memory, and learning.

Beta-Endorphin

Reduces pain and boosts pleasure.

Norepinephrine

Controls alertness, arousal, and mood.

Dopamine

Involved in reward, motivation, and movement.

Serotonin

Regulates mood, sleep, and appetite.

Reuptake

Process where neurotransmitters are reabsorbed.

Agonism vs. Antagonism

Agonists enhance neurotransmitters; antagonists block them.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Brain and spinal cord.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

All nerves outside the CNS.

Somatic Nervous System

Controls voluntary movement.

Autonomic Nervous System

Controls involuntary functions (organs, glands).

Sympathetic

Activates "fight or flight."

Parasympathetic

Activates "rest and digest."

Dorsal vs. Ventral

Back vs. front orientation.

Anterior vs. Posterior

Front vs. back.

Medial vs. Lateral

Middle vs. side.

Spinal Cord

Transmits signals between brain and body.

Brain

Main control center of the nervous system.

Lateralization

Specialization of functions in left vs. right hemispheres.

Corpus Callosum

Bundle of fibers connecting the two hemispheres.

Cerebral Cortex

Outer brain layer, involved in higher thinking.

Frontal Lobe

Decision making, movement, and speech.

Motor Cortex

Controls voluntary movement.

Prefrontal Cortex

Planning, reasoning, impulse control.

Broca's Area

Speech production.

Parietal Lobe

Processes touch and spatial information.

Somatosensory Cortex

Registers touch and body sensations.

Topographical Organization

Mapping of body parts in the cortex.

Temporal Lobe

Processes hearing and memory.

Auditory Cortex

Processes sound.

Wernicke's Area

Understanding speech.

Occipital Lobe

Processes visual information.

Visual Cortex

Interprets visual input.

Thalamus

Relay station for sensory information.

Pituitary Gland

"Master gland" that controls hormones.

Limbic System

Emotion and memory system.

Amygdala

Processes fear and emotion.

Hippocampus

Important for memory formation.

Hypothalamus

Regulates hunger, thirst, temperature, hormones.

Reticular Formation

Regulates arousal and alertness.

Substantia Nigra

Produces dopamine, controls movement.