Analyzing Arguments: From Reading to Writing

argument

defined as persuasive discourse, a movement from a claim to a conclusion.

Ex: If you want to find a good job, you should work hard. You do want to find a good job. So you should work hard.

Rogerian argument

An argument that is based on an assumption that having a full point of view of the counterargument is essential to refuting it with full evidence.

For example, if your opponent is against the teaching of evolution in schools, acknowledge and honor their commitment to the education of their children.

claim

state or assert that a point or something is the case. there are many types of claims, but they all assert a point

an example of a claim could be saying "the death penalty should be abolished" in an essay

claim of fact

states that something is true or something is not true.

example would be saying that Zimbabwe is located in Africa

claim of value

argues that something is good or bad, or right or wrong, it's about values.

an example would be saying that "Why Investing in Fast Food May Be a Good Thing" the title from Amy Domini's argument

claim of policy

means prosing a change; could be local or a larger issue

an example of this would be parents implanting a curfew on their kids.

First Hand Evidence

information from someone that witnessed the event either by listening about it or watching it happen.

appeals to ethos, pathos, and logos

weak because current events sometimes may not be credible and biased.
strong because the accountability can be verifiable

Personal Experience

best as an insider view, an experience from the author

appeals to ethos and pathos

strengths are it appeals to the audience's feelings and they can relate to it.
weak because it is not always as credible is the speaker is not credible

Anecdotes

another view about people you've observed or been told about

appeals to pathos

strenghts are it can relate to audience's feelings.
weak because sometimes is not always credible if the information is not a great source

Current events

your observation & knowledge seek multiple perspectives

appeals to pathos and logos. sometimes ethos

weak because it can have lots of bias based on the news source
strong because it has lots of experienced evidence

Second - Hand Evidence

evidence from research, reading, investigation; citing what someone else knows

can appeal to all ethos, pathos, and logos

can be weak if the evidence isn't credible and from a not trustworthy source
can be strong if the information is verifiable facts and expert opinions

Factual and historical information

verifiable facts; be brief but don't misrepresent

appeals to ethos

strong because it states the facts and what people need.
weak because its second-hand sometimes not the full story

Expert Opinion

expert must be credible; opinions and ideas from a interview of an verified professional

appeals to ethos and logos

strong because the information is from a credible person.
not really any weaknesses, unless expert is biased

Quantative

number: statistics, surveys, polls, census information

appeals to ethos

can be weak because some data might not be 100% honest and some could just be lying on the forms
strong because it mostly gives information from the audience.

closed thesis

summarizes the main points the author intends to make. it limits the number of points the writer intends to make. For instance, here is a closed thesis on the appeal of the Harry Potter book series.

counterargument thesis

thesis is a specific type of the open and closed thesis in which the writer's opinion is preceded by a summary of a refutal

logical fallacies

A logical fallacy is a deceptive or false arguement that can be proven wrong with valid reasoning.

An example of this is "Katherine is a bad choice for mayor because she didn't grow up in this town."

red herring

A type of logical fallacy in which irrelevant information is given to mislead to distract someone from the main point.

ex: The police investigated many clues

ad hominem fallacy

This fallacy occurs when you make an irrelevant attack on the argument. The word also means “against the man”

ex: "Marx's ideas are irrelevant today because the technologies we use and rely on would have been inconceivable to him.”

faulty analogy

This is a type of fallacy in which assumptions are made because two more more things are alike in many aspects.

ex: Medical Student: "No one objects to a physician looking up a difficult case in medical books.

straw man fallacy

this occurs when a intentionally chooses an oversimplified example to refute a claim.

ex:
Parent: Your curfew is at 10 pm tonight.

Teenager: But the party doesn't even start until 9:00.

Parent: It's a school night

false dilemma; either/or fallacy

a type of fallacy that presents only two options or sides when there are more than two sides.

ex: If we don't order pizza for dinner

equivocation

a type of fallacy in which the speaker intentionally misleads the audience by using words and meanings with ambiguity.

ex: I have the right to watch "The Real World." Therefore it's right for me to watch the show.

hasty generalization

a type of fallacy that occurs when there is not enough evidence to backup a claim

ex: I saw a basketball player sneeze; thus, all basketball players have allergies.

circular reasoning

a type of fallacy that involves repeating the claim as a way a replacement for valid evidence

ex: A is true because B is true; B is true because A is true

post hoc ergo propter hoc (post hoc fallacy)

a logical fallacy that occurs when someone assumes that one event occurred because of another.

ex: "Every time that rooster crows

appeal to false authority

A fallacy that relies on fake statements from "credible authority figure"

ad populum fallacy; bandwagon appeal

A fallacy based on the assumption that the opinion of the majority is always the correct opinion.

Example: Everyone is going to get the new smart phone when it comes out this weeke