UVIC BIOL 370 FINAL

Ethical Principles of Conservation Biology

1) Diversity of Species and Ecosystems should be Preserved (zoo)

2) Untimely Extinction of pop' and sp. should be prevented

3) Ecological Complexity should be maintained

4) Evolution should continue (3+4 can't be done in a zoo)

5) Biodiversity has intrinsic value

6) Objective scientific research needed

7) Collaboration among scientists, managers and policy makers necessary

3 American Ethics

1) Preservation Ethic (Muir)

2) Resource Conservation Ethic -sustainability (Pinchot)

3) Land Ethic - maintain health in natural systems and ecological processes (Leopold)

Species Diversity

1) Morphological

2) Biological

3) Evolutionary

4) Cryptic Biodiversity (level we don't know)

Species Formation

1) Adaptive Radiation

2) Hybridization

Measuring Species Diversity

3 indicies for different geographic scales

1) Alpha - Shannon diversity index (one area)

2) Gamma - # species in region

3) Beta - Change in species composition across geographic region (gamma/alpha) (low - same species in each

Ecosystem Diversity

1) Ecological Succession (Intermediate disturbance)

2) Species interactions (mutualism, predation)

3) Trophic Levels (1˚ producers, 1˚/2˚ consumers etc.)

4) Keystone Species (Have disproportionate effect on community)

5) Keystone Resources (small area, critical for many species)

Global Diversity

1) Tropical Forest

2) Coral Reefs

3) Mediterranean

4) Oceans

Factors Affecting Biodiversity

(sp. richness increase)

1) Climate and Environment (dec. elevation, increase solar and precipitation)

2) Increased geological age, complex topography, large habitat size

Ecosystem Services (Indirect Use Value)

1) Ecosystem productivity and Carbon sequestration

2) Water and Soil protection (flood control)

3) Waste treatment and nutrient retention

4) Climate regulation

5) Sp. relationships

6) Environmental Monitors (indicator species)

7) Amenity Value (Ecotourism)

8) Educational and Scientific Value

9) Option value (Benefit in the future)

10) Existence value

Extinction Vulnerability

1) External Threats (human exploitation)

2) Sp. characteristics (body size, habitat size, reproductive rate)

Extirpated=locally extinct*

Island Biogeography Model

"Large Islands Have More Species"

S=CA^Z

Lower Z = lower increase #sp./island

C increase with groups with many sp.

50% of variation in species #

1) > variety of local environment

2) Accommodate more population per species

3) Large individual pop' = increase speciation, decrease probability of local extinction

Assumptions and Generalizations

1) Sp. with very broad distribution will have lower extinctions

2) Assumes all endemic species will be eliminated from are largely cleared of forest

3) Assumes habitat elimination at random

4) Only makes predictions based on % habitat loss

Characteristics of Species Vulnerable to Extinction

Endemic sp.: only in single geographic area

1) Narrow geographic range

2) Species with 1 or few pop'

3) Species with small pop' size

4) Species with declining pop' Size

5) Species hunted or harvested by people

Extinction Threats

1) Species needing a large home range

2) Large bodied animals

3) Poor dispersers

4) Migratory species

5) Species with low genetic variability

6) Species with specialized niche requirements

7) Species adapted to stable environment

8) Species that form aggregations

*Allee effect

9) Species with no prior human contact

10) Species with extinct/threatened relatives

IUCN Conservation Categories

1) Extinct: Extinct vs. Extinct in Wild

2) Threatened: Critically endangered, endangered, vulnerable

3) Lower Risk: Near threatened, least concern

Threats to Biodiversity

1) Habitat Destruction: Tropical forests, temperate grasslands, wetlands, marine coastal areas, desertification

2) Habitat Fragmentation: More edges, center fragmented, effect dispersal/colonization

3) Habitat degradation and Pollution: Pesticides, water and air pollution

4) Global Climate Change: Increased temperature, melting glaciers and polar ice, rising sea level, earlier spring (mismatched phenology), shifts in species ranges, pop' declines

5) Overexploitation: Commercial harvest

(Max sustainable yield)

Ymax = rk/4

6) Invasive Species: Human colonization, agriculture/aquaculture, accidental transport, biological control

7) Disease: high rate of contact increases spread, decrease habitat increase susceptibility, conservation efforts expose to human disease

Small populations showing rapid declines and local extinction

1) Loss of genetic variation (inbreeding depression, genetic drift)

2) Demographic fluctuations due to random change in birth and death rates

3) Environmental fluctuations and catastrophes:

- Inbreeding depression

- Outbreeding depression

- Loss of evolutionary flexibility

Factors Affecting Ne

Founder effect:

- pop' est. by a few individuals, less genetic variability

1) Unequal sex ratio

- selective mortality

- Temp. dependant sex determination

2) Variation in reproductive output (some individuals make more offspring)

3) Population fluctuations and Bottlenecks

50/500 rule

Isolated population needs 50 Ne, preferably 500 to maintain genetic variability

50 to avoid inbreeding depression

500 for mutation to balance drift

What types of info do we know?

1) Environmental

2) Distributional

3) Biotic Interactions

4) Morphology

5) Physiology

6) Demography

7) Behavior

8) Genetics

9) Interactions with humans

Long term Monitoring

Species variable in size, reproductive output

- hard to get funding

Can see delayed effects of habitat disturbance

Conservation

vs

Preservation

C: Allows sustainable use

P: Maintain as it, no use of resources, maintain ecosystem

Conservation

vs

Environmentalism

C: Scientific biological research

E: Political, educational activism

Worlds first national park

Yellowstone

Emerson and Thoreau

In Canada: Banff

Biodiversity

Genetic: differences in a population

Species: all species

Community/ Ecosystem: interactions with each other and chemical environment

Source of Genetic Diversity

Mutations, Recombination

Pop' less vulnerable to extinction (resilience)

- heterozygosity: individual > flexibility

- masking harmful alleles

Gene Flow:

Transfer of new alleles

gene combinations

Between populations

Allee Effect

Correlation between population size or density and the mean individual fitness

Demographic fluctuations:

- instability in small population

Pure Research

vs.

Applied Research

P: Want to understand

A: Crisis oriented

Extinction Vorticies

Tendency for small population to decline toward extinction

*Cumulative effects

Population Viability Analysis

Statistical risk assessment (mortality rates, recruitment, age, size distribution, area occupied)

Establish probability of persistence

*Sensitivity analysis: which variables most affect extinction probability

International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) extinction risk categories are based on:

1) Habitat loss

2) Population size

3) Population declines

Extinction Debt

Future loss of species due to events in the past

- Delayed loss of Species

Minimum Viable Population

Minimum Dynamic Area

MVP: Smallest isolated pop' having __ chance of survival for ____ years in spite of for seeable effects of demographic , environmental, genetic randomness and natural catastrophes

- estimate for long term survival

- % chance of persistence

MDA: Using Home range size and individual movement

- area of appropriate habitat necessary for maintaining MVP

Persistence vs. Resilience

P: maintain same state in spite of ongoing disturbance

vs.

R: able to return to original state quickly after disturbance

Metapopulations

Collection of populations linked by dispersal migration

Species Based Conservation

Est. new pop'

1) Reintroduction - in historical range

2) Reinforcement - restocking

3) Introduction - outside historical range

In situ vs. Ex situ conservation strategies

In situ: On site

Ex situ: maintenance of samples of living organisms outside their natural habitat

How Ex situ benefits In situ conservation

1) Learn biological basics

2) Test technologies to enhance studies in situ

3) Public education

4) Money

Zoos methods to enhance reproductive rates

1) Cross fostering (share eggs)

2) Artificial incubation (collect eggs)

3) Artificial insemination

4) Embryo transfer

5) Genome resource bank

- frozen DNA, embryos etc.

Limitations of ex situ conservation

1) Cost: Large animals

2) Population Size: Space limitations (lower genetic diversity)

3) Adaptation - to artificial environment

4) Learning skills - social animals, foraging etc.

5) Genetic Variability - genetic drift, limited gene pool

6) Continuity - funding, frozen specimens (need power)

7) Concentration - rare endangered sp. at 1 location, hurricane etc. could destroy

8) Surplus animals - what to do with extras?

Types of PA (IUCN 6 category system)

1-4 highly protected (no use)

5-6 allow some use (resource extraction)

Effectiveness of PAs

Location:

- [ ] biodiversity

- heterogenous (many niches)

- representative of all ecosystems

Biodiversity Offsets

Area set aside as compensation for habitat destroyed elsewhere

How to make new PAs

Government action, land purchases/conservation easements, indigenous peoples actions

Steps:

1) Establish priorities for conservation

2) ID high priority areas

3) Select new PAs by filling gaps = conservation networks

How to make new PAs Step 1

Priorities for conservation:

1) Distinctiveness (irreplaceability)

2) Endangerment (vulnerability) - Range, rate of decline, loss of ecological function

3) Utility (useful to humans)

How to make new PAs Step 2

ID areas to protect:

1) Species Approach - indicator/ flagship (umbrella) species

2) Hotspot Approach - areas of high species richness)

3) Ecosystem Approach - Easy to convince public (clean water, flood control)

4) Other areas - wilderness areas (unaffected by humans), ecosystem services

*Climate change: est. PA in areas species may move to

How to make new PAs Step 3

Selecting new PAs: gap filling

1) highest priority sites

- not already protected

- max linkage among PAs

- practical and cost effective

- spread out investments

* Gap species: not protected in any part of range

* Gap analysis: GIS, cons planning software

Networks & Management of PAs

- How should we design PAs

4 Rs

- Representation

- Resiliency

- Redundancy

- Reality

Best to have PAs including:

- completely protected ecosystem

- larger un-fragmented

- more reserves, with corridors between

- stepping stones (movement)

- Diverse habitats

- Reserve shape (more rounded)

- mix of large and small

- managed regionally

- human integration buffer zones

PA size: SLOSS

Single large or several small

1) Single large: wide range, low density, large animals, less edge effects, representation (more habitat diversity), long term pop', successional stages

2) Several small: certain size don't add anymore, more ecosystems, pop' of rare sp., less chance of entire elimination of sp. (from disaster)

* depends on target

generally larger = larger pop', more pop', more habitats

Extinction Research for PAs show:

1) PAs should be as large as possible, keystone resources, habitat gradients

2) acquire land adjacent to parks (buffer to reduce external threat)

3) Small reserves can preserve diversity

- may be only option left

- need public awareness

4) preserve corridors, other dispersal means

PAs design

- Small: scattered = metapop' (facilitated dispersal)

- Maintain umbrella species

- Understand natural history, community distribution (pure research)

Drawbacks of conservation networks/ corridors

Pathogens, predator prey trapping, funnelling, costs

Make sure management plans based on ecological understanding

Fire suppression, removal of wood debris and snags, predator control

- may not be actually benefiting the system

Zoning

Mange conflicting demands

- areas set aside to activities

- restricted in other areas

Marine PAs

- fishing in certain areas or times of the year

*Biosphere reserves

- Core area, buffer zone, transition zone

Types of habitat in unPAs with ecological value

- selective logged forest

- roadsides: Pollinator habitat

- power lines: small shrubs (integrated vegetation management)

- Aquatic systems (altered dams/canals)

- military reservations (regal fritillary)

- private estates

- urban areas (parks - but human wildlife conflict)

- agricultural areas

Payment for ecosystem services

PES

- direct version of integrated conservation development projects (ICDP)

- pay land owners to reduce poverty and conflict

Ecosystem Management Themes

1) Apply science to develop coordinated plan for area (biological, economic and social aspects)

2) Ensure viable pop' of all species, representative biological communities, successional stages, ecosystem functions

3) Understanding connections btw ecosystem levels

4) Monitor significant components of ecosystem (adaptive management)

Bioregional Management

Protection integrated with human use

- single large ecosystem

ex. timing of harvest

Restoration Ecology

Damage to ecosystems caused by human activities that reduce resilience or natural recovery can take centuries

Ecological Restoration:

- restoring species/ecosystem in site in the past (that were damages, degraded or destroyed)

Restoration Ecology*

- science of restoration (study of restored populations/ecosystems)

When is restoration required?

- After resource extraction

- Political: land is unproductive

- Biodiversity offset, compensatory mitigation

Adaptive Restoration

Long term monitoring and adjustment with further restoration

- test with multiple sub set sites, choose best one

Ecological Restoration Techniques

4 Main Approaches

1) No action (passive restoration)

2) Rehabilitation (dif. but productive replacement)

3) Partial Restoration (some ecosystem function and some original dominant sp.)

4) Complete Restoration (original sp. composition)

Urban Restoration

Habitat creation:

* Reconciliation ecology

- increase quality of life

- ex. landfill restoration

Eutrophication

Remove pollution sources, reintroduce native species

Migratory Birds

May be more threatened:

- rely on various environments

Go north for summer (follow food)

Strong connectivity: travel together

Weak connectivity: different populations mix and split up

Exogenous (Extrinsic) Markers

Passive Markers:

- things we attach or natural markings

Active Markers: (<5% of weight)

- Radio transmitters

- Light level geo-locators (backpack, lat/long)

- Satellite Transmitter

Other:

- Radar (not specific, flight patterns)

Are we altering behaviour?

Increasing mortality?

Are marked individuals representative?

Endogenous (Intrinsic) Markers

Trace elements: feathers, claws

Genetic: allozymes, mtDNA, micro satellites

Stable Isotopes: lighter higher elevation

Key Threats to Migratory Birds

80% affected by agriculture + resource use (destruction of habitat)

1) Light pollution

2) Hunting (unsustainable harvest)

3) Urbanization/Land use pressures

4) Artificial structures

5) Extreme weather events

6) Climate change

Migratory Bird Conservation Requirements

- Protect the network (breeding, stop over and wintering sites)

- need better information

- need international collaboration

Conservation physiology

(pituitary axis)

Initial response vs HPA that takes longer

- measurement right after base line

- hold for a longer time get stress response

1) Adrenaline already synthesized (fast response)

2) Cortisol need to be made before they are released (slower response)

Capture Stress Protocol

Induce response

Other methods:

- Feathers/fecal samples

- Dermal swabs

Ecotourism and Disruption Impacts

Penguins: Decreased adult response to injected ACTH

- higher CORT in developing nestlings

Iguana: no baseline difference - had reduced response in more disturbed area

- down regulation of stress response

Capercaille (Grouse): ski tourism

- ski season elevated, most CORT in more stress areas

Elephant Poaching: disruption of social relationships

- most stressed environment worse when no kin

- disrupted areas have fewer infants

Urbanization: Blackbird

- collect city and forest eggs

- raise in lab, urban had reduced CORT response

Habitat disturbance: Salamander

- disturbed = lower response to stress

Nutritional Metabolic

Physiology

- energetic cost of hibernation

Brown Bats: white nose syndrome, increase metabolic cost, actively chose heated housing (to survive)

Polar Bears: Muscle atrophy

- food deprivation, usually can recover after winter, but summer atrophy from climate change

Aquatic Ectotherms

Reduced thermal tolerance with increased body size, increase temp decrease average body size

Conservation and Climate Change

EXAM ESSAY Q

- Species distributions

- Phenology (timing of biological events)

- Ecosystem services

- Species abundance: extinction threats

- Species based conservation (ex situ)

- PA, management outside PAs

- Migratory birds

- Conservation Physiology

Climate change:

Affects:

- Species abundance, distribution, physiology, morphology, phenology

Response:

- move, adapt (pop'), acclimatize (individual), die

Plasticity

INDIVIDUAL LEVEL *

Extent to which environment modifies phenotypic expression

Climate change:

Rapid Response (intergenerational)

- Maternal

Investment of compounds in egg yolk

- reduced when stressed

- pass on specific immunity

Climate Change:

Behavioural Response

- Rapid/Reversible

American Pika

Early indicator of stressor

Conditions - temp. precipitation, food, habitat

Pika

- Foraging strategy (storage vs feeding), water uptake in moss

- Habitat use

- Thermoregulation (restrict activity or change body shape)

Non talus habitat buffer against extreme winter temp.

- forests allow activity in mid day

Habitat Refugia

Areas for species to move into as

climate changes (need to be protected)

- different microhabitats

Species Redistribution

- variation in species range shifts

1) Species redistribution ecology

- explanatory (understand drives) vs anticipatory (predict states) SDM= Sp. dist. model

2) Conservation actions

- needs now and future

- Managed relocation

- Ensure networks, refugia

3) Social and Economic Impacts

- Food security

- Indigenous + local livelihood, governance, cultures

- Human health

Climate Change

- Biotic Interactions

- Shift in species interaction

- decoupled trophic levels

- novel sp. interactions

- redistributed habitat or keystone species

Cumulative effects

Socioeconomic Value of Marine Ecosystems

Direct value: protein

Ecosystem Service: Climate regulation

Principal Marine Climate drivers

pH, Temp, [O2], food

Climate change effects:

Marine Ecosystems

- Decrease ocean pH, with increase CO2

- Increased ocean temp (nutrient stratification and dec O2 supply)

Cumulative: decreased 1˚ productivity

Additive or synergistic effects

Ocean Acidification

Increase CO2 in air and therefore in ocean causing decreased pH (inc. H+), decreased carbonate (decreased calcification rates)

Indirect Effects:

- Corals: reduced habitat complexity and species richness

- Mussels: transitions to other sp., reduced structural complexity/ richness

- Sea grass:* increased shoot density, increased sp. richness

Behavioural Response to Ocean warming and acidification

1) Larval dispersal and settlement - (Damselfish: acidification affect use of olfaction, audition and visual to find habitat to settle)

2) Predation - detection, recognition and escape behaviour (harder to find prey, shorter warning distance for prey)

3) Competition and habitat use - reversal of competitive interactions

4) Movement and migration - swimming performance and sensory affects

5) Reproductive Behaviour - altered timing or cessation

Plastic Pollution

85% marine litter

- ingestion, false satiation, affects reproduction, enzyme function, growth, oxidative stress, immune function

- vehicle for pathogens, toxins

Transfer up trophic levels

banned microbeads

bacterial degradation??

Fisheries and Bycatch

K-by-catch (long lived animal)

Size by-catch

Regulatory by-catch

ex. Long lining - K by catch

tuna fishery, shear waters

Mitigation:

- spatial, temporal, day/night closures

- fishing gear

- release requirements

- Weighted lines (deeper set)

- Reduced bait visibility

- Torilines (80% decrease)

Herpetology (Amphibians + Reptiles)

- All terrestrial habitats except high arctic and antarctic

-Highest proportion of threatened data deficient species

- Narrow distributional range, and niche requirements (more susceptible to threats)

Amphibian and Reptile Decline

From habitat loss + degradation, unsustainable trade, invasive species, pollution, disease, climate change

only 35% of reptile species evaluated

Species richness in the tropics

Highest

- also where we have deficient data for amphibians

Fossorial groups (underground)

- hard to study

Fresh water species (turtles) under highest threat

Least overlap in diversity is for lizards and turtles

* reptiles have very low conservation opportunity cost (except turtles)

Sustainable Development Definition

Economic development that satisfies present and future needs for resources and employment

- minimizing impact on biodiversity and functioning ecosystems

Economic Development

vs.

Economic Growth

ED: improvement in efficiency, organization, and distribution of resource use (not necessarily increased consumption)

EG: Material increase in amount of resources needed

Sustainable Development

1) Local Conservation

- legal designations of land (nature reserves / PAs), rise of non governmental organizations, Developments require env. impact assessments

- Land trusts and financial incentives (PES)

- Conservation Easements (preservationalist) prevent development

- Conservation development (conservationist), limited development

- Conservation concession, NGO buy land for same profit as developer

2) Conservation at a National Level

- National Parks, Environmental pollution regulation, control of borders (CITES)

3) Traditional Societies, Conservation and sustainable use

- local people on traditionally owned lands, their way of life (locally managed PAs)

Degazzettement

Gov't removes existing legal protection status of conservation to allow resource extraction and economic development

PADDD: Protected Area Downgrading, Downsizing and Degazzettment

Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation

REDD+

- conserve and enhance carbon sinks and reservoirs

- Funds from developed to developing countries

REDD+ Issues

1) Monetary value on nature

2) Voluntary, was land at risk?

3) Internal incentives

4) Location of programs

5) "leakage" (damage elsewhere)

6) Funding horizon, amount

7) Payment contingency, Assessment

PES can be effective/ cost effective

International Approaches to Sustainable Development

Why do we need?

1) Species migration across borders

2) International trade: demand= overexploitation

3) Biodiversity= international benefits

4) Pollution problems are international in scope (eg. mercury, rivers, oceans, green house gas emissions, climate change)