biochem final not labs

Monosaccharides

Single sugar molecules

Disaccharides

Two sugars linked together

Oligosaccharides

3–10 sugars linked together

Polysaccharides

Long chains of many sugars

Importance of carbohydrates

They give energy and help build cell structures

Functional groups in carbohydrates

OH groups, aldehydes, ketones

Aldose

A sugar with an aldehyde group

Ketose

A sugar with a ketone group

Triose

A 3-carbon sugar

Tetrose

A 4-carbon sugar

Pentose

A 5-carbon sugar

Hexose

A 6-carbon sugar

Simple carbohydrates

Small sugars like glucose

Complex carbohydrates

Large carbs like starch or glycogen

Carbohydrate nomenclature

Naming sugars by carbon number + aldose/ketose

Diastereomers

Stereoisomers that are not mirror images

Total stereoisomers formula

2ⁿ (n = chiral centers)

Stereochemistry of monosaccharides

3D arrangement of atoms in sugars

Important monosaccharides

Glucose, fructose, galactose

Physical properties of monosaccharides

Sweet, dissolve in water

Sugar alcohols

Reduced sugars used as sweeteners

Cyclic monosaccharides

Sugar bends and forms a ring

Condensation of monosaccharides

Two sugars join and release water

Important disaccharides

Sucrose, lactose, maltose

Important polysaccharides

Starch, glycogen, cellulose

Carbohydrate tests

Benedict’s, Barfoed’s, iodine test

Carbohydrate hydrolysis

Breaking big carbs into small sugars

Importance of lipids

Energy storage and membrane structure

Physical properties of lipids

Oily, don’t mix with water

Fatty acids

Long carbon chains with COOH group

Saponifiable lipids

Lipids that can be broken down to make soap

Nonsaponifiable lipids

Lipids that cannot make soap

Waxes

Long fatty acid + long alcohol

Functions of waxes

Waterproof protection

Triglycerides

Glycerol + 3 fatty acids

Triglyceride function

Main energy storage fat

Fats vs oils

Fats solid, oils liquid

Hydrogenation of triglycerides

Adding hydrogen to make oils more solid

Hydrolysis of triglycerides

Breaking into glycerol + fatty acids

Phosphoglycerides

Major membrane lipids with phosphate

Sphingolipids

Lipids with sphingosine, found in nerve cells

Biological membranes

Lipid bilayer with proteins

Steroids

Lipids with 4 fused rings

Cholesterol

Helps membrane stability + hormone building

Bile salts

Help digest and absorb fats

Steroid hormones

Chemical messengers like estrogen and testosterone

Calorie comparison method

Burn food and measure heat released

Nucleotides

Building blocks of DNA/RNA

Dinucleotides

Two nucleotides linked

Polynucleotides

Long chains of nucleotides

Importance of nucleic acids

Store and pass on genetic information

Types of nucleic acids

DNA and RNA

Parts of a nucleotide

Sugar + phosphate + base

DNA vs RNA

DNA has deoxyribose + ATCG; RNA has ribose + AUCG

Nucleotide condensation

Joining nucleotides and releasing water

DNA structure

Double helix with base pairing

Chromosomes

DNA packed into organized structures

Genes

DNA sections that code for traits

Chromosome maps

Show where genes are located

DNA replication

Copying DNA before cell division

mRNA

Carries genetic instructions

tRNA

Brings amino acids to ribosome

rRNA

Helps form ribosomes

Central Dogma

DNA → RNA → Protein

Transcription

Making RNA from DNA

Translation

Making protein from mRNA

Genetic code

Codons, universal, redundant