Unit Two: Perception- Perceptual Organization and Interpretations

figure- ground

organization of visual field into objects that stand out from their surroundings

grouping

perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups

depth perception

ability to see objects in three dimensions which allows judgement of distance

visual cliff

laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals

binocular cues

a depth cue that depends on the use of two eyes

convergence

a cue to nearby object’s distance, enables by the brain combining retinal images

retinal disparity

binocular cue for perceiving deth

how is retinal disparity measured?

the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the image

monocular cue

depth cue available to either eye alone

stroboscopic movement

an illusion of continuous movement experienced when viewing a rapid series of slightly varying still images

phi phenomenon

an illusion of movement credited when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession

autokinetic effects

the illusory movement of a still spot of light in a dark room

perceptual constancy

perceiving objects as unchanging, even as illumination and retinal images change

color constancy

perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelength reflected by the object

shape constancy

same form despite changing retinal receptions

size constancy

unchaning size, even while distance varies

perceptual adaptation

the ability to adjust to changed sensory input, including an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field

executive functions

cognitive skills that work together which enables us to generate, organize, plan, and implement goal- directed behavior

algorithm

methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular issue

what does algorithm contrast?

heuristics

which takes longer- algorithm or heuristics?

algorithm

heuristic

a simple thinking strategy (a mental shortcut) that allows us to make judgements and solve problems efficiently

insight

a sudden realization of a problem’s solution

confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our previous ideas and ignore or distort contradictory evidence

fixation

the inability to see a problem from a new perspective

mental set

a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way; often a way that has worked in the past

intuition

an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought

representativeness heuristic

judging the likelihood of events in terms of how well they seem to represent (or match) particular prototypes

availability heuristic

judging the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory

overconfidence

the tendency to be more confident than correct- to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgements

belief perseverance

the persistence of one’s initial concepts, even after origical basis of their belief has been debunked

framing

the way an issue is posed; can significantly affect decisions and judgements

nudge

framing choices in a way that encourages people to make beneficial decisions

memory

the persistence of learning over time through encoding, storage, and retrieval of information

recall

a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier

recognition

a measure of memory in which the person identifies items previously learned

relearning

a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again

encode

the process of getting information into the memory system

storage

the process of retaining encoded information over time

retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory storage

parallel processing

processing multiple aspects of a stimuli or problem simultaneously

sensory memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

short-term memory

briefly activated memory of a few items that is later stored or forgotten

long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless archive of the memory system

working memory

a newer understanding of short-term memory; conscious, active processing of incoming sensory information and information retrieved from long-term memory

central executive functions

a memory component tat coordinates the activities of the phonological loop and the visuospatial sketchpad

phonological loop

a memory component that briefly holds auditory information

visuospatial sketchpad

a memory component that briefly holds information about objects’ appearance and location in space

neurogenesis

the formation of new neurons

what is neurogenesis a result of?

exercise, sleep, and non stressful but stimulating environments

long term potentiation (LTP)

an increase in a nerve cell’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation

explicit (declarative) memories

retention of facts and experiences that we can consciously know and “declare”

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of familiar or well- learned information, such as sounds, smells, and word meanings

implicit (nondeclarative) memories

retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection

iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli

echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli

chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units

mnemonics

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

hierarchies

composed of a few broad categories divided and subdivided into narrower concepts and facts

spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention that is achieved through masses study or practice

testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information

shallow processing

encoding on a basic level, based on the structure or appearance of words

deep processing

encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the word

semantic

explicit memory of facts and general knowledge

episodic

explicit memory of personal experiences

hippocampus

helps process explicit (conscious) memories for storage

memory consolidation

neural storage of a long-term memory

implicit memory system

cerebellum and basal ganglia

flashbulb memories

a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

priming

the (usually unconscious) activation of certain associations; predisposes a person’s perception, memory, or response

encoding specificity principle

the idea that cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will better help us remember it

mood- congruent

the tendency to recall the experiences that are consistent with one’s current mood

serial disposition effect

tendency to better recall the last items in a list (recency effect) and the first items after a delay (primacy effect)

metacognition

think about thoughts and evaluate own progress and faults

testing effect

helps identify what you don’t truly know, which allows you to specify attention and learning

interleaving

retrieval practice strategy that involves mixing the study of different topics

anterograde amnesia

inability to form new memories

retrograde amnesia

inability to remember past memories

displacement

information not encoded for long- term memory will be lost as new information enters short term

proactive (forward acting) interference

disruptive effect of older learning on the recall of new information

retroactive (backward acting) interference

disruptive effect of newer learning on the recall of old information

positive transfer

previously learned information helps learning of new information

repress

(psychoanalytic theory) basic defense mechanism that banishes conscious anxiety- inducing thoughts, feelings, and memories

reconsolidation

process where previously stored, retrieved memories are possibly modified before being stored again

misinformation effect

occurs when a memory has been corrupted by misleading information

source amnesia

faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or gained

deja vu

“I’ve experienced this before”; cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience

intelligence

the ability to learn from an experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situation

general intelligence (g)

underlies all mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on intelligence test

factor analysis

statistical analyses that identifies clusters of items (factors) on a test

fluid intelligence (gf)

ability to reason speedily and abstractly

crystallized intelligence (gc)

accumulated knowledge and verbal skills

cattell-horn-carroll theory

intelligence is based on general intelligence (g) as well as specific abilities bridged by gf and gc

existential intelligence

ability to ponder existential ideas, life, death, love, and purpose

savant syndrome

a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an excellent ability in one specific category

intelligence test

method for assessing an individual’s mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others

achievement tests

intended to reflect what you have learned

aptitude test

intended to predict what you will be able to learn

mental age

levels of performance associated with children of a certain age