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Hindsight bias
overestimation of the ability to predict an outcome.
Empiricism
test ideas with the use of date (aka evidence)
Steps in scientific process
1- formulate a question
2-formulate a hypothesis
3-design the study to test the hypothesis
4-perform study and interpret data
5- communicate findings
Operational definition
a statement about the procedures the researcher used to measure a variable
descriptive methods
research techniques that aim to accurately describe a phenomenon or behavior by observing and collecting data without manipulating variables
Case study
in-depth analysis of one subject (or more)
Observation
Describe and measure people's and/or animals’ behavior systematically
Survey
Asking people questions about their thoughts, feelings, desires, and actions and recording their answers.
Problems with surveys
Wording
Response bias- a pattern of responses to questions that do not accurately reflect the content of the question.
Random sampling
everyone in the population has an equal chance of being in the sample.
Correlational method
measures the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables
Positive correlation
variables change in the same direction
Negative correlation
variables change in opposite directions
Correlation coefficient ®
an indicator of the strength of the relationship between two variables (ranges from -1.00 to +1.00)
Experimental method
researcher changes (manipulates) one variable and measures the effects of that change on another variable
Only research design in which cause and effect can be inferred
Independent variable
manipulated by the experimenter
Dependent variable
outcome variable
Experimental (treatment) condition (group)
receives treatment/stimulus.
Control condition group
does not receive treatment/stimulus
Confounding variable
a variable that is potentially responsible for the results, but is not the variable of interest (not the independent variable).
Random assignment method
used to place participants into an experimental condition in which participants have an equal chance of being in every condition.
Experimental control
The researcher makes sure that no factors other than the IV are changing and thus could affect the DV.
Placebo effect
observed improvement following an inert treatment
Placebo control group
participants who receive a placebo rather than actual treatment or nothing
Expectancy effect (type of experimenter bias)
results when the experimenter’s hypothesis (expectation) leads unintentionally to behavior toward the participants that then increases the likelihood that the participant's behavior will confirm the hypothesis.
Single bind procedures
the participants do not know if they have been assigned to the experimental or control group
Double-blind procedures
neither the participants nor the researchers know who has been assigned to the experimental or control group.
Generalizability
generalization of an outcome to other groups and settings
Replication
replication of study
Biological/Neuroscientific
How physical systems (ex brain) affect behavior, feelings, and thoughts
Evolutionary
Natural selection of traits
Behavior genetics
Contribution of genes and environment to behavior
Psychoanalytic/psychodynamic
Unconscious dynamics within the individual
Behavioral
Learning via reinforcements and punishments
Cognitive
How people reason, remember, interpret
Sociocultural
How social and cultural forces shape individuals' behaviors
Nervous system
complex communication network made up of neurons
Neuron
a specialized cell that transmits neural messages to other neurons, glands, and muscles
Dendrite
receives neural messages from other neurons
Cell body (soma)
houses DNA
Axon
a thin tube that transmits messages away
Glial cells
provide structure for neurons, some form blood-brain barrier (prevents some toxins from entering the brain), some form myelin sheath
Myelin sheath
specialized cells that are wrapped around the axon to help transmit messages
action potential
The electrical signal within a neuron that travels from the cell body down to the end of the axon (neural firing)
threshold
level of electric charge needed to stimulate action potential
all or none response
once the electric charge of the neuron reaches a certain threshold, it fires an action potential
neuron transmitters
Chemical signal between neurons
More intense stimulations
neurons fire more frequently and a higher number of neurons fire, neurons individually cannot go above or below threshold
Synapse
junction between 2 neurons
Neurotransmitters
chemical messengers that travel across synapses from sending neurons to receptors on receiving neurons
Reuptake
sending neuron reabsorbs excess neurotransmitters
Excitatory signals
increase the likelihood that neurons will fire
Inhibitory signals
decrease the likelihood that neurons will fire
Acetylcholine
muscle action, learning, memory
Endorphins
reduce pain and promote pleasure
Dopamine
voluntary movement, reward, learning, memory
Serotonin
involved in sleep, appetite, mood
Glutamate
excitatory- learning, memory enhancement
GABA
inhibitory- calms
Epinephrine and norepinephrine
involved in stress response
Agonists
increase the normal activity of a neurotransmitter
Antagonists
decrease the activity of a neurotransmitter
Motor neurons
carry signals from the brain or spinal cord to muscles, skin, and glands
Sensory neurons
carry messages from receptors to the spinal cord and brain
CNS
brain and spinal cord
Response to sensory information
Sends messages to muscles, glands, organs
Spinal cord
an extension of the brain
Handles both incoming and outgoing messages
Acts as a bridge between the brain and body below the neck
Spinal reflexes-
automatic responses that occur without any brain movement
PNS
All of the nervous system outside the brain and spinal cord
Allows communication between CNS and sensory systems
Contains somatic and autonomic nervous systems
Somatic nervous system (voluntary)
sensory and motor pathways
Autonomic nervous system
consists of sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system, automatic
Sympathetic nervous system
increases physiological arousal, fight or flight
Parasympathetic nervous system
decreases arousal , rest and digest
Hormones
chemicals secreted by endocrine glands into the bloodstream
Hypothalamus (brain structure)
controls pit gland
Pit gland
-” master gland” because it produces hormones and sends it to other glands
Adrenal glands
important in mood, energy level, stress response
Pineal gland
regulates circadian rhythm (the body's natural 24-hour cycle of physical, mental, and behavioral changes that are controlled by a biological clock in the brain)
Electroencephalogram (EEG)
Detect electrical activity of neurons in particular regions of brain
PET scan- positron emission tomograpy
Records biochemical changes in the brain as they are happening in different locations
CAT scan
computerized axial tomography
X-ray beams sent through the head
Picture of brain tissues
MRI
uses a magnetic field to measure the activity of various brain areas
fMRI
functional magnetic resonance imaging
Uses MRI to measure the relative activity of various brain areas during tasks
Medulla-
controls life-sustaining bodily functions
Pons
involved in sleep, connects cortex to lower brain regions
Reticular formation
controls alertness; attention
Thalamus
relay station; directs incoming information from sensory receptors to the cerebral cortex
Cerebellum
coordination of movement; balance, and muscle coordination; memory of simple skills
Amygdala
emotions- aggression, fear
Hypothalamus
regulates endocrine activity; controls hormone release, reward/pleasure
Hippocampus
“gateway to memory”, enables the formation of new conscious memories
Frontal lobes
at the front, planning, creative thinking, personality
contains motor cortex- voluntary movement
mirror neurons- fire when observing another person doing something