Approaches

Defining features of the behaviourist approach made by Pavlov and Skinner

Stimulus - response mechanism: behaviourists argue it is only possible to investigate what can be directly observed and measured (like a stimulus and its resulting behaviour response)

Rejection of internal mental processes = as mind cannot be directly observed, behaviourists say it is a black box, not suitable for scientific study

Environmental determinism = they argue behaviour is the result of experience and can be controlled by manipulating the environment

What is science?

Systematic = using a controlled method, gives researcher confidence they they measured what they planned to, make it easy to replicate

Objectivity = no bias in research improves reliability of outcome and conclusions

Empiricism = scientists must test their ideas and modify hypotheses

Who is Wundt and and what did he do?

Father of experimental psychology

Set up first psychological library

First “psychologist”

What is wundts contribution to the development of psychology?

His use of scientific methods established psychology as an independent field of scientific research

His research was called structuralism = undercover hidden structure of mind by describing it in simple components

Descibe the process of introspection

Participants are trained to report conscious experiences as objectively as possible

Participants asked to focus on sensory objects, like ticking

Participants would report experience of object by breaking their thoughts into different elects - participants Clodia inward and report sensations

Criticism of introspection as method of investaigation

Not direct observation of mental process - Wundt made inference a, means making a guess

So researcher assumption may be incorrect

Considered subjective

Participants cant be relied to accurately report their mental states, they may be mistaken or alter behaviour due to demand characteristics

Evaluate the good things about Wundt and the origins of psychology

At that time, his work was very scientific because of controlled experiments and large ample sizes

Systematic approach allowed him to develop his theories

His use of inference influences cognitive psychologists

What did Freud contribute to history of psychology - after Wundt

Created psychodynamics

Developed concepts of unconscious mind

Structure of personality - id, ego superego

Psychosexual stages

What did behaviourist Pavlov and Skinner contribute to psychology? - after Freud

Considered mind is a black box, only behaviour could be measures objectives and scientifically

Explain behaviour as stimulus response mechanisms

Rejected introspective methods

What did Bandura contribute to psychology?

Agree with behaviourism but argued

There is mediational process: attention, retention, reproduction and motivation

Role models are observed and imitated

Outlines pavlova research into classical conditioning and the findings

Two stimuli = neutral stimulus that did not produce a response, and an unconditioned stimuli, food that naturally produced a response in dogs

Procedure = he paired the NS with US several times

Findings = dog began to salivate in response to NS, showed dog learned to associate NS with food

Outline skinner's research into operant conditioning

Learning by reinforcement

Skinner made boxes to give electric shock through cage wires, when animal pushed lever, shock stopped

Positive reinforcement = adding pleasant stimukus to encourage a desired behaviour

Negative reinforcement = removing unpleasant stimulus to encourage the behaviour

Describe the features of punishment, extinction and behaviour shaping in skinner’s operant conditioning

Positive punishment = discourage behaviour by adding an unpleasant stimulus

Negative punishment = removed pleasant strikes to discourage behaviour

Extinction = reinforcing consequences stop, animal stops doing the behaviour

Behaviours shaping = train animals to perform complex behaviours

What is congruence

Carl roger argued congruence is essential for self actualisation

Alignment between one perceived self and ones ideal self

When there is a gap between these 2 selves, person experiences incongruence and cant achieve self actualisation

Evaluate the behaviourist approach

Strengths

Scientific = studies stimulus - response mechanisms that establish cause and effect relationships

Highly controlled experiments, standardised procedure allow for replication

Practical application = counter conditioning techniques for classroom management

Weaknesses

Not generalisable to human behaviour as humans have greater intelligence than simple stimulus - response mechanisms

Behaviourist attempt to explain behaviour due to simplistic stimulus response is reductionist, as human behaviour like self sacrifice is too complex to describe as the result of reinforcement

Define features of social learning theory - Bandura

Observing others is a template for out actions

Vicarious reinforcement = we see someone rewarded for behaviour we are more likely to mimic it

Vicarious punishment = witnessing someone punished for an action makes us less likely to adopt that behaviour

Modelling = indivuals we observe are models, like family members and movie characters

Identification = not all models have same likelihood of being imitated, more likely to imitate models with similar characteristics, like age and gender or people we deem attractive or high status

What is a mediational factor SLT

Social learning theorists argued that human behaviour cant be fully understood without including cognitive processes that happen between stimuli and response

These are attention, retention, reproduction, motivation and MUST happen between observation a model perform a behaviour and imitating that behaviour

Describe the role of mediational factors in social learning theory

Attention = to learn from a model, individual must pay attention on behaviour of it

Retention = remembering the observed behaviours into memory

Reproduction = belief in the ability to replicate the behaviour demonstrated by model

Motivation = willingness to perform behaviour, which is influenced by expected out comes, like punishment / rewards

These processes explain why individuals don’t automatically mimic every behaviour they observe

Outline banduras research into SLT

Procedure = children aged 3 to 6 , divided into 2 groups

First group watched adult have physical and verbal aggression to the toy

Second group watched adult interact non - aggressively with toy

One way mirror recorded children’s physical and verbal behaviour

Findings = children exposed to aggressive model were aggressive themselves

Highlighted role of identification - boys more likely to mimic aggression after observing male model compared to female model

Evaluate the strengths and weakness of the social learning theory

Strength = supported by evidence, boob doll has high internal validity due to laboratory setting and environmental control, same room

Less reductionist approach, more detailed understanding of human behaviour and uses role of consciousness

Weaknesses = banduras researcj only showed short term learning: aggression may not be imitated months later

Bobo doll study relied on inference from behaviour of child participants

What is an internal mental process

How information is processed in the mind, including conscious and unconscious thoughts

Areas of research could be attention, perception and memory

Cannot be directly observed = so researchers have to use inference to make assumptions about the internal mental processes that produced the participants behaviour response

Strength and weakness of the cognitive approach

Strength

Scientific approach, due to highly controlled experiments so has high internal validity

Weaknesses

Relies on inference, so can be viewed as less scientific

What is a schema?

Mental frameworks, with basic knowledge built from previous experience with the world

Work as mental shortcuts = use them to understand interact with people / objects

What two things do schema help with?

Process environmental information = we can engage with world without being overwhelmed when we assign object to a schema

Predict future = because they are based on past experiences, they allow us to make assumptions about what people will do in similar situations

How do schemas cause problems?

They lead to inaccurate recall = assumptions can influence memory

Negative schema lead to poor mental health = think badly about themselves

Outline the use of computer model as an explanation of mental process

Operationalised of a CPU is similar to human brain conducting internal mental process

Suggests both systems receive input and generate output

Criticised for being machine reductionists = overly simplistic but human Brian is very complex

Outline the theoretical model as a explanation of mental processes

Flow chart representations of steps of mental process

Shows how short term memory can progress to long term memory

Generate testable hypotheses, so each assumption can be scientifically tested

Explain the emergence of cognitive emergence

Cognitive neuroscience examines neurological structures of brain linked to internal mental processes

Emergence = due to development of brain scanning techniques, researcher ask participant to do cognitive tasks can observe activity in different areas in brain

How has cognitive neuroscience been supported?

Tan could only say Tan due to speech production issues

After he died, autopsy showed damage in Broca’s area

Broca’s area activates in language production

Define the biological approach:

Behaviour is a result of biological structures and processes like hormonal and nervous system that influence human behaviour

What is the influence of biological structures on behaviour

Endocrine system has gland that release hormones

Fight or flight response = brain signals adrenal gland to release adrenaline, enchanted blood flow to to brain and muscles to prioritise reflexes and attention

Hormones =

Outline the influence of neurochemistry on behaviour

Neurotransmitters have many roles in influencing behaviour

Serotonin = well being and happiness

Dopamine = reward nuerotransmitter linked to pleasure

Noradrenaline related to attention

Describe what happens in the synapses

Presynaptic neuron contains neurotransmitters in vesicles

Electrical signal called action potential triggers release of neurotransmitters into synaptic cleft

Neurotransmitters bind to recorptis in post synaptic neuron

They can be excitatory, increasing the likelihood of new action potential or inhibitory, decreasing it

Outline the influence of genes on behaviour

Instructions / blueprints for how the brain forms and functions

Psychologists study genetic inheritance of behaviour with concordance rates, higher concordance rates among generically closer relatives suggests genetic influence

What are genotypes and phenotypes

Genotypes = genetic code in DNA for characteristics of organisms

Phenotype - physical expression of genotype

Genotypes and phenotype dont match, someone can have genotype to be talll, but be short as they didnt receive nutrition in childhood

Outline the relationship between evolution and behaviour

Darwins theory on natural selection argues that organism with traits that enhance survival are more likely to pass these advantageous characteristics to their offspring

They argue that innate behaviours with survival advantages are more common in further gernation species

E.g male aggression used for hunting

Strengths and weakness of biological approach

Strengths

Theories that argue that biological structure neurochemsity and genes influence behaviour are backed up by MRI scans

Practical application = develop drug therapies for OCD, depression

scientific = advanced tools like MRI scans

Weakness

Diathesis stress model, we inherit genetic vulnerability which is later triggered by a stressor, factors like childhood or trauma

Biological determinism = belief that actions are predetermined by biological factors is problematic - criminals could say they have a criminal gene

What is psychodynamics and the psychodynamic theory

Study of the unconscious mind and unconscious mental drives in childhood

Psychodynamic theory = the psyche (mind) is a complex system that consists of three distinct parts conscious, preconscious and the unconscious

Describe the role of the unconscious

Our behaviours are shaped by unresolved unconscious conflicts and experiences in psychosexual stages

Problems cause by this is fixation, where individual remains stuck in a particular stage and expresses negative personality traits

Projects the conscious mind from harmful traumatic memories and fears so reduces anxiety by using defence mechanisms

Describe the conscious, preconscious and the unconscious

Conscious = thoughts we are aware of snd can tall about (emotions and ideas)

Preconscious = not immediately accessible but can be brought into cosnouis awareness

Unconscious = Freud believed it was largest part of the mind, hold memories that are not accessible to awareness but influence behaviours and feelings - desires, repulses

Describe the ID part of the personality - psychodynamics

Newborn infant = psyche consists only of Id, selfish aspect of mind focused on satisfying personal needs

Operates on pleasure principle

Describe the ego part of personality - psychodynamics

18 months, begins to form

Conscious part of personality

Uses rational thinking to manage id demands

Individual is able to interact with world in more balanced manner

Describe the superego part of personality - psychodynamics

Age 3, child develops this unconscious component of their personality

Morality principle = influences behaviour by inducing guilt when actions conflict with strict standards

Moderates behaviour according to moral / social expectations

Outline the psychosexual stages of development - psychodynamics

(If a child is unable to resolve a stage, they will become fixated and this will alter their personality and may results in mental disorders)

Oral stage - 0-1 years, baby receives pleasure from breastfeeding, when weaning, baby learn it doesn’t control environment And develops delayed gratification

Fixation = immature personality

Anal stage = 1-3 years = child gets pleasure from holding on and expelling faeces

If parents are too strict with potty mistakes, this results in fixation = overly organised adult

Phallic stage = 3-5 years = libido (sexual drive) focused on gentians

Boys have Oedipus complex = sexual desire for mother and have castration anxiety, fear father find out and will removes his genitals

Boy realises eventually he compete with his father and imitate him, developing a male gender identity

Electra complex for girls

Latency stage = 6-12 years = sexual energy y(libido) is dispersed across body’s and desires from childhood are repressed into unconscious

Genital stage = puberty and sexual desire are conscious

Outline Maslow hierarchy of needs

Sequence of human needs

Certain foundational needs must be met before you can achieve self actualisation

First - physiological needs = food, warmth, water

Safety = security, well being and health

Love = social needs, desire for connections and relationships

Esteem = self esteem and esteem from others

Self actualisation

Define term defence mechanism

Strategies involving unconscious mind that ego uses to manage unresolvable conflicts

These reuce conflict between id and superego

Gives examples of defence mechanisms

Denial = refusal to accept regality of situatio

Displacement = strong emotion is moved from the source and placed onto a substitute target

Repression = unpleasant mmeory is placed into unconscious mind and no longer accessible to conscious

Strengths and weakness of psychodynamic approach

Strength

It has practical application, psychoanalyst if therapy (talking therapy) many people have been treated, so it must be valid

Intuitive appeal = boys often have stronger attachment to mother, early trauma can influence anxiety

Weakness

Lack scientific credibility = he intercepted his clients memories, dreams

His theories and definitions were untestable nd lacked falsifiability

Define features of the humanistic approach

Reject scientific method - say tat human. Behaviour is too complex to study scientifically, which only test simple cause and effect relationships

Free will = say external causes dont set behaviours and we have personal agency

Holistic approach = include every factor

What does the humanistic focus focus on

Mental health = unlike other approaches stat focus on how mind malfunctions, they explore personal growth and self actualisation (humans achieving highestt potential and performing the best)

Non experimental methods, only case studies because they are rich in detail and dpeth of human experience

Outline the assumptions of self - actualisation

Highest level of psychological development, realising your full potential

Individual deeply understand themselves and their values and purpose in life

How to become congruent

Adopt more realistic ideal self = often, peoples ideal selves are shaped by conditions of worth, expectation from others that one must meet to earn their approval

Conditions of worth leads to ideal self that is unattainably perfect

Enhance perceived self = helped by receiving positive regard from others, like acceptance and love and support

Strengths and weakness of humanistic psychology/approach

Strengths

Captures complexity of human behaviour, e.g diathesis stress response, both environmental and biological elements interact

Practical application = client centred therapy, improve outcomes

Weaknesses

Non scientific due to reliance on case studies and non experimental method, lack of evidence

Culturally biased towards western cultures, emphasis self actualisation as personal success which contrasts collectivist value of cultures where group harmony is prioritised