Psychology of Helping, Obedience, and Personal Space: Key Studies

What phenomenon does the murder of Kitty Genovese illustrate?

The bystander effect

What was the aim of Piliavin et al.'s (1969) study?

To investigate the bystander effect in a naturalistic setting

What type of experiment did Piliavin et al. conduct?

Field experiment

What were the two types of victims used in Piliavin et al?

Drunk or ill

What was the dependent variable in the Piliavin et al. study?

Level of bystander helping

How many total participants were estimated in the Piliavin et al. study?

Approximately 4,450

What age range did the male models in the study fall into?

24-29 years of age

What was the outcome when the victim had a cane?

Very little evidence of the bystander effect

What percentage of victims received spontaneous help in the study?

78%

What did the cost-benefit model suggest about witnessing an emergency?

It raises arousal, leading individuals to either help or move away

What was a strength of the Piliavin et al. study?

Good ecological validity due to real train journeys

What was a weakness of the Piliavin et al. study?

No control of extraneous variables affecting participant behavior

What ethical issue was present in the Piliavin et al. study?

None of the passengers gave informed consent

What does interpersonal distance refer to?

Personal space, or our 'bubble'

What is oxytocin commonly known as?

The love hormone

How does oxytocin affect interpersonal distance among empathic individuals?

It promotes closer interpersonal distance

What is empathy?

The ability to respond to others' experiences from another's perspective and feel concerned

What are social cues?

Signals that guide social interactions

What is the significance of the 'good Samaritan' model in the Piliavin study?

The model's behavior influenced the likelihood of bystander helping

What factor increased the likelihood of helping behavior in the Piliavin study?

Early modeling intervention at 70 seconds

What was the racial composition of the participants in the Piliavin study?

Approximately 45% black and 55% white

What did the study find about gender and helping behavior?

90% of helpers were male

What was a common comment made by female passengers during the study?

'It's for men to help him.'

What did the study conclude about the duration of an emergency and helping behavior?

The longer an emergency continues, the less likely anyone is to help

What situational factors may increase the likelihood of bystanders helping?

Same sex, race, and situations where they cannot walk away

What was the aim of Perry et al.'s study on personal space preferences?

To test the differential effect of the social hormone oxytocin (OT) on personal space preference in relation to a person's empathy ability.

What factors were measured in relation to personal space preferences?

Preferences for closeness to friends and family, and the influence of empathy abilities on personal space when given OT.

What type of experiment was conducted in Perry et al?

A laboratory experiment at the University of Haifa.

What was the independent variable (IV) related to empathy in the study?

Empathy levels categorized as high or low empathy.

How was oxytocin administered to participants?

As nasal drops, self-administered under supervision, with either oxytocin or a placebo saline solution.

What was the dependent variable (DV) in Experiment 1?

The preferred distance measured between the participant and the approaching person/object.

What was the sample size and demographic of the participants in Perry et al?

54 male undergraduates from the University of Haifa, aged 19-32.

What was the purpose of the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI) in the study?

To categorize participants into high and low empathy groups based on their scores.

What was the experimental design used in Experiment 1?

A mixed experiment design with independent group designs for empathy and repeated measures for treatment.

What were the conditions tested in Experiment 1?

Conditions included interactions with a stranger, authority figure, friend, and a rolling ball.

What did the results indicate about oxytocin's effect on high empathy participants?

OT decreased the mean preferred distance to others in the high empathy group.

What was the interaction effect observed in Perry et al?

OT had a differential effect on personal space preferences, decreasing distance for high empathizers and increasing it for low empathizers.

What was the mean preferred distance for high empathy participants receiving oxytocin?

23.29% of the total distance.

What was the mean preferred distance for low empathy participants receiving oxytocin?

30.22% of the total distance.

What was the control condition in the study?

Participants receiving a placebo saline solution without oxytocin.

What was the main finding regarding the condition of 'friend' versus 'authority' in the placebo group?

High empathizers showed significant differences in preferred distance from friend compared to authority.

What was the method used in Experiment 2 to assess personal space preferences?

Participants chose between pairs of rooms with varying chair distances and angles.

How many trials did participants complete in the Comfortable Distance CID Paradigm?

96 trials in total.

What was the significance of the 'ball' condition in the study?

It was hypothesized to be an invitation to social interaction, enhanced by OT for high empathizers.

What was the duration participants waited after OT administration before assessments?

45 minutes.

What was the age range of participants in Perry et al?

19 to 32 years old, with a mean age of 25.29.

What was the main conclusion drawn from the interaction effects of treatment, condition, and empathy?

Oxytocin has a differential effect on personal space preferences based on empathy levels.

What was the operationalized measure of personal space in Experiment 2?

The preferred distance and angle between two chairs in a room.

What was the total number of pairs of comparative angles shown to participants in Experiment 2?

168 pairs overall.

What did the study reveal about empathy and personal space preferences?

Highly empathetic individuals preferred closer distances, while low-empathy individuals preferred greater distances.

What was the role of the double-blind procedure in the study?

To ensure neither the participants nor the experimenters knew who received OT or the placebo.

What was the main hypothesis regarding oxytocin's effect on interpersonal distance choices?

That highly empathetic individuals would prefer closer distances when given OT.

What is the effect of oxytocin (OT) on social preferences?

OT enhances social cues in opposite ways: low empathy + OT increases personal distance, while high empathy + OT decreases personal distance.

What was the main finding regarding personal space preferences in the oxytocin study?

People need less distance between friends than between strangers.

What was a strength of the oxytocin study?

Good internal validity with controlled extraneous variables and a double-blind procedure.

What is a weakness of the oxytocin study?

Lacked ecological validity as it was conducted in a laboratory setting with computer-generated images.

What ethical considerations were addressed in the oxytocin study?

Informed consent was obtained, and participants were fully debriefed; however, there was deception about the purpose of the task.

What implications does the oxytocin study have for individuals with social difficulties?

It suggests that while OT may have positive effects, it could also complicate social interactions for those with autism or anxiety disorders.

What was the aim of Milgram's obedience study?

To investigate how obedient individuals would be to orders from an authority figure, even if it involved causing physical harm.

What method did Milgram use in his obedience study?

Controlled observation in a laboratory setting.

What was the sample used in Milgram's study?

40 men aged 20-50 recruited through a newspaper advertisement.

What was the fixed role in Milgram's experiment?

The stooge was always the 'learner' who received shocks.

What was the maximum voltage participants could administer in Milgram's study?

450 volts.

What percentage of participants administered the maximum voltage in Milgram's study?

65% of participants gave the maximum 450 volts.

What were some qualitative results observed in Milgram's study?

• After procedures ended, participants showed relief ( wiped their face, sighed, shook their head)

• Some comments were made during the procedure, such as

  • “I don't think this is very humane.”

  • “I'm gonna chicken out…I can’t do that to a man, i’ll hurt his heart.”

What was a strength of Milgram's study?

Standardized procedures and controlled observations enhanced reliability and validity.

What was a weakness of Milgram's study?

The sample was limited to men from the same local area, affecting generalizability.

What ethical issues were raised in Milgram's study?

Participants were deceived about the nature of the study, lacked true informed consent, and were not protected from psychological harm.

What do individual and situational explanations highlight in Milgram's study?

They emphasize the role of situational factors, such as the legitimacy of the authority figure, in influencing obedience.

What is destructive obedience?

Obedience that has the potential to cause psychological or physical harm to another person.

What was the average pain estimate given by participants for the maximum shock in Milgram's study?

The average pain estimate for 450 volts was 13.42 on a scale of 1-14.

What role did verbal prods play in Milgram's study?

Verbal prods were used by the experimenter to encourage participants to continue administering shocks.

What was the purpose of the debriefing in Milgram's study?

To reassure participants that the 'learner' was unharmed and to address any psychological distress caused by the experiment.

How did Milgram's study challenge previous assumptions about obedience?

It demonstrated that a significantly higher percentage of people would obey authority figures than previously estimated.

What did Milgram's study reveal about the influence of social pressure?

It showed that social pressure from authority figures can lead individuals to act against their moral beliefs.

What is the significance of the laboratory setting in Milgram's study?

It provided a controlled environment that ensured the reliability of the results but raised questions about ecological validity.

What was the role of the confederate in Milgram's experiment?

The confederate acted as the 'learner' who was supposedly receiving shocks, influencing the participant's behavior.

What does the term 'social pressure' refer to in the context of Milgram's study?

The influence exerted by a person or group on another individual to conform to certain behaviors or actions.