History 210 Midterm Vocab

Renaissance (1350-1550)

Rebirth and revival of ancient (Roman) things

Francis Petrarch (d. 1374)

Scholar during Renaissance. Negative image of time between antiquity and early modernity—people didn’t think enough, not Roman enough

Antiquity

The ancient past, especially before middle ages

Modernity

1350+

Middle Ages

Period in European history from the collapse of Roman civ (5th century) to the Renaissance (approx 14th century)

Medieval

Of or relating to the middle ages

Early Middle Ages (300-1000)

Dark Ages (550-700)

Late Antiquity (250-650)

period in European history when religious development and barbarian influence contributed to decline of Roman Empire

Latin Christendom

European geographical area where Christianity was practiced (typically Roman and therefore Latin)

Charlemagne (d. 814)

“Father of Europe.” Came closest to a united European state (EU may see him as a model of what they are trying to do).

• Includes Germany in an ancient European model that typically excluded it.

• By the time of his death, people saw the paternity of Europe as the great encompassing of vast culture and economy.

Edward Gibbon (d. 1794)

how to evaluate end of Roman history and beginning of early middle ages

• “History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire” (1776-88)

• triumph of barbarism and superstition

• despite what Gibbon says, was not an even but a process=transformation

“triumph of barbarism and superstition”

According to Gibbon, causes for the fall of the Roman empire. Outside forces of barbarians and increasing religious fervor.

“third century crisis”

Succession Crisis: Augustus didn’t establish clear rules/system of succession by time he died

• 20 emperors during this time (not able to establish legitimacy)

• struggle between army, provincial aristocracy, senatorial aristocracy

Military Problems: Very imperialistic dynasty ruling in Persia

• Zoroastrianism: religion is dualistic

• now big rival to east who are pushing west

Financial Issues: epidemic led to significant decline in population=less tax revenue, but money needed for security and military expeditions

• money is precious metal—created coinage w/ less silver leads to massive inflation and hurts population (devalue)

• people knew coins were devalued, they hid coins and lose them (3rd century hoards significantly larger)

Sasani Dynsasty

(224-651) Very imperialistic Persian dynasty

• descendants of great ruler who united Persia (Cyrus)

• Zoroastrians—wanted to extend territory—>threatened Rome

Zoroastrianism

Religion is dualistic: two divine powers—god and bad (cosmic struggle)

Shah of Shahs

“King of Kings” (zoroastrian)—many Romans captured during campaign

Decurions

Provincial aristocrats—fully Roman

• intermediary between provinces and emperor: tax collectors

• retire, decide honor and favor aren’t worth it and turn to private guests and no longer serve public good

Diocletian (d. 310)

is Illerian (Balkans)

• rises through ranks through army, murders predecessor, but lasts more than 20 years (during succession crisis)

• retires to cultivate cabbages (only emperor to retire)

• effective and lasts

• reorganizes military

• increases central bureaucracy

• reform of coinage

• establishes techtarchy

• divides HRE into west and east

Edict of Prices (301)

List of Prices for all commodities (Diocletian)

tetrarchy

Four rulers over Roman Empire established by Diocletian.

• east and west

• 2 Augustus (more power) and 2 Caesar (junior emperor)

• Caesar replaces Augustus when Augustus dies and appoints new Caesar

Dominus/Princeps

Way to address emperor. Title was princeps (first among equals), now, dominus (lord—semi-divine now).

• airbrushing of new rulers based on Persian ceremonials; thrones, palaces

• doesn’t mingle with crowd: only appears in places of authority, always at top, would duck under doorways to create image of larger-than-life, divine

Constantine (d. 337)

When western Augustus died in 310, British army rose up, but son of Augustus (Constantine) came forward and accepted elevation of power.

• breaks tetrarchy

• has religious experience, converts to Christianity

• Christianity becomes religion of triumph

Battle of Milvian Bridge (312)

Constantine marches south w British troops to Rome where they meet the real Augustus’s army

• roman commander willing to pitch his troops against other romans

• power hungry

• Pagan triumph: drag captives and defeated through city in chains to be executed (military ceremony to celebrate victor)

  • Constantine does this not with barbarians, but with other Romans

Edict of Milan (313)

Constantine converts to Christianity and meets with Augustus of East to sign Edict of Milan

• allows public practice, land owning —> church can own property

• illegal —> legal/licit for first time

Byzantium

ancient city that Constantinople is built on

Constantinople

Constantine moves here and establishes it as new residence of the emperor (Rome is too pagan)

• he can build a new Christian Roman capital

• more strategic location, more Christian, he can make it his own away from senatorial aristocracy (away from check on his power)

Romulus Augustulus

*476 - for Gibbon = fall of empire

• Romulus Augustulus (emperor) goes home (pensioned by bodyguard)

  • nobody notices (553: it is recorded)

  • has no effect on people’s lives

  • fall of Roman Empire is heard by nobody

Latifundium

Large pieces of land owned by senatorial aristocracy (western emperors give away power (right to tax and recruit)

• land no longer taxed, workers on the land can’t be recruited to the military

• gov’t therefore goes after small farmers, so they go to latifundium for protection—enter as subordinate (coloni)

• becomes state within the state

• vast reduction of tax base and recruitment pool for Roman Empire

• failure to govern by Roman government

  • problem of man power (less people because of epidemic, recruiting pool)

Coloni

Farmers who enter latifundium as subordinates to escape taxation and recruitment of Roman government.

• subject to the authority of landlord (law, etc.)

• surrender freedom for protection

Foederati

Roman government recruits outside of Roman Empire because of latifundium: Barbarians—foederati

• happens on an unprecedented scale in the 4th century

Foedus

Military recruitment of Barbarians on a contract: pay in exchange for military service

• pay is usually land

• they are usually Romanized, but now too many and they aren’t

• government lets them be, commanders become territorial leaders

• Roman empire is delegated out of existence

  • creates pockets where emperor is superfluous

Battle of Adrianople (378)

• Only time in Roman history where Roman army fights against Barbarian troops (federation)

• troops were angry because their contract had been broken—so they marched on Constantinople

• emperor felt he had to prove himself, unprepared and was thus defeated

Bishapur

One of the residences of Shah of Shas (Shapur II) in southeastern Iran

• cave with larger-than-life (x2) statue of Shah of Shahs

• Persian emperor (barbarian trousers—Romans don’t wear pants), large, flowing hair held by diadem: both of which signify chosenness

  • showing us an idealization, quintessence of shah of shah-ness, of legitimate Persian emperorness

Bas Relief

Tells story of why Shapur is a great guy: captured Roman emperor Valerian and crushed Roman armies

• story of Shah of Shahs: shows Valerian kneeling to Shapur: w/ hair, diadem—Valerian in Roman garb

• Valerian and others depicted as normal compared to Shah of Shahs to indicate Shapur’s superiority and Roman inferiority

Valerian

Roman emperor captured by Shapur and depicted in Bas Relief as inferior and weak

Taq-e Bostan

(nw Iran) Shows coronation of Shah of Shahs, below his feet is Roman emperor Julian

Julian (d. 375)

One pagan Roman emperor (lasted 2 years), depicted in Taq-e Bostan

Augustus (d. 14)

First Roman emperor—was able to take over power and turn the republic into a monarchy —> ruled for a long time (~50 years)

• claimed to be descendant of Venus (rare to claim divine ancestry)—used to solidify and justify singular rule, legitimacy

• statue: barefoot (the way heroes and gods appear), wearing ceremonial military garb

  • slightly bigger than human (2m), but still human (first among equals)

  • pointing forward: military command

  • always depicted with same haircut

Porphyry

Sculpture of the tetrarchs made out of porphyry: stone only emperors have access to (egyptian), denotes imperial art

• 4, but one clump of stone: truly one, harmony despite division of empire

• look identical, tetrarchy is one, no individuation—can be replaced

• military outfits, shown as soldiers

• embracing each other, hands gripping swords—showing how they rose through ranks

Basilica of Maxentius

Colossal statue of Constantine

• designed to appropriate Basilica of Maxentius —> basilica of Constantine w/ large statue of him inside

  • glorification of Constantine

Spolia(tion)

take/loot monuments of predecessors to include in Constantine’s arch (take bits of older art to include in new art)

• speaks to effort to assert traditionalism—participate in continuity, part of prestigious past

• authority over Roman resources

Arch of Constantine (315)

(traditional) representing himself as continuation of a prestigious, successful past—lots of Bas Relief

• scenes to aggrandize emperor

• sacrifice of animals (pagan)

• roundals: some have pagan scenes, Constantine’s face replaced old ones (4th century emperors have staring eyes)

• Constantine’s artistic representation as a continuation of great rulers

Martyr

A person who is killed because of their religious beliefs

• Christianity generated martyrs—not a thing in paganism

Great Persecution (303-11)

One time in antique history where it becomes imperial law to go after Christians

• generates Christian text (self-righteous indignation)

• had previously enjoyed Roman neglect and indifference

Universalism

Christianity is a powerful unifier

• no longer distinguish between “us'“ or “them” because all with a soul can be Christian

• Christian universalism is attractive to Roman emperors

  • unifier, validity, ready for conversion

  • one God, one empire, one emperor

Canon

What are the divine texts Christians should be reading/what books are divinely inspired and normative for Christians

• not divinely inspired=apocrypha

Patriarch(ate)

During the restructuring of Christian authority structures, five “super bishops” emerge because they have specific claims to authority=patriarchs

• basis of accommodations: important cities to Roman gov’t

• apostolicity

• Alexandria, Jerusalem, Antioch, Constantinople, Rome

  • Rome stands out: “The City” —> Peter and Paul both in Rome (double apostolicity)

  • (Greek) eastern patriarchs retract theological debates, Latin roman Church’s primitiveness gave them reputation for perfect orthodox

Apostolicity

Claim first bishop of the city was an apostle

• Christianity therefore initiated there

• Alexandria, Jerusalem, Antioch, Constantinople, Rome

• Rome has double apostolicity —> Papacy starts in Rome as best of bishops

  • Peter is rock on which church will be built - Jesus

    • Bishop of Rome is Peter’s heir—gives Pope validity

Pope/Papacy

Starts in Rome because of claim of double apostolicity

• Gives Rome superiority in doctrine

Council of Chalcedon (451)

In what proportion is Jesus divine/mortal? — what is the nature of Jesus?

• roman Patriarch prevails: therefore moral and cultural authority of Rome prevails

  • “equal rank of Rome is given to Constantinople,” even in late antiquity, Roman patriarch is not unchecked

Septuagint

Two separate canons created for east and west (does not unify like Constantinople intended)

• Eastern Church (Greek) works out own Bible=Septuagint=translation of Old Testament from Hebrew into Greek

Vulgate

Jerome translates new Latin Bible called Vulgate

• Western Church translates Hebrew and Greek into Latin

Jerome (420)

Translates new Latin Bible called Vulgate

• high ranking family, educated —> dropped out and moved to Jerusalem

• his translation is so good, that it becomes canonical

Codex

Together with new canon and new text=new technology=codex

• (book) invention of late antiquity

• completely outed scrolls because of Christian leadership practices —> they disseminated the use of codex

• way the Bible existed in late antiquity very different (separate books) (almost nobody had all of them)

• room for debate because of inconsistent books

Scroll

Used before invention of codex

• occupy lots of space, made out of papyrus

• Christians decide they are inadequate because they liked to compare texts

Church Fathers

Worked out doctrinal philosophy about Christianity after the conversion of Constantine

• eastern=Greek language tradition and western=Latin tradition (much less developed and interesting)

Ambrose (d. 397)

Church Father

• not originally clergy

• priest —>bishop (374)

• rises in popularity because he was a powerful preacher and explicator, and wrote powerful letters

• two encounters with Roman emperor later spun as acknowledgement of greater power of religious over secular authority (while discussing riots in Thessalonika where Christians burn down synagogues, emperor tries to get the clergy to pay, Ambrose says they have no power to do so (clergy separate) and emperor apologizes twice

Augustine of Hippo (d. 430)

Barber (from Algerian region) becomes bishop of Hippo

• permanently aware of human inadequacy because of original sin —> never been able to be perfectly good since (“fallen man”)

• powerful sense of human sinfulness (only by God’s will)

• Wrote City of God Against the Pagans (413-15)

City of God Against the Pagans (413-25)

Written by Augustine of Hippo

• Rome is a wicked, sinful place

• says Rome is irrelevant for God’s purpose—what matters is City of God—community of those saved by divine grace —> go to manual of religious scripture “history is not what we thought, it’s about judgment, want to be in City of God at time of judgment.”

Heresy

Wrong belief (“chosen” in Greek)

Orthodoxy

Correct belief

Arius/Arianism (336)

In 300, Deacon Arius proposes trinity (God is 1 who is 3 persons)=Arianism

• God the Father is superior, highly debated (trinity)

• Constantine calls for Council of Nicea to discuss

Council of Nicea (325)

Constantine calls for the Council of Nicea

• all bishops are to decide is Arianism is heresy

  • they decide Arianism is heresy under pressure from Emperor Constantine

Ecumenical Councils

Meeting of bishops and other Church authorities to consider and rule on matters of Christian doctrine

Monophysitism

Belief that the person of Jesus Christ has only one divine nature

Monophysite

Those who believe Christ is fully divine

• condemned as heretics after the Council of Chalcedon (papal view is Jesus is both simultaneously divine and mortal)

• Roman state enforces this view which alienates Eastern Christians who are mostly monophysites

• religion remains divided

Monasticisim

Distinctive form of religious expression (not unique to Christianity) historically important to religious development

• Christian clergy redefined theology with the backing of the Roman Emperor

• minority of Church wants to stand apart—believe current practices is not how to respond to the call of God

• practitioners seen as perfect Christians

Nun/Monk

Practitioners of monasticism: admired, seen as Christian heroes, perfect Chrisitans

• nuns and monks are disproportionally powerful—social and cultural capital because they seem, to the rest of the community, as perfect Christians

Monachos

Greek=alone

• related to eremitical monasticism

Eremitical Monasticism

Living completely alone, earliest form of Christian monasticism

• total, complete self-sacrifice and servitude required to become one with God —> must be completely alone and engage in constant contemplation, self-denial —> must have room for divine

• freedom from petty distractions: distractions of body, society/social ties (property, social connections)

Asceticism

Attainment of control=asceticism=to master yourself

• practices designed to limit needs for bodily needs/wants and social ties

Apatheia

attain “numbness”=apatheia

• creates room for divinity

• active indifference to outside stimuli

St Anthony (d. 350)

Model of Christian monasticism (Egypt)

• moved into cemetery outside of village, but strong taboo for living to live within places of the dead, therefore he was doing something extremely contrary to prevailing ethos

• allowed him to be completely alone (eremitical)

• gained followers, but he wanted to be alone

• series of graduations cemetery—>desert—>deep wilderness

• successful hermits all attract a following

  • “the desert became a city” so many people responded to call for being alone, wilderness becomes populated—asceticism becomes harder to obtain (various styles)

  • after Anthony—>very popular

Coenobitic Monasticism

Alone together (95% of monasticism)

• develops in Egypt

• community of those with more intense devotion to God

• less subversive to Roman authority—follows Roman values of law and family structure

St Pachomius (d. 340)

tried eremitical monasticism, but couldn’t do it

• 320: formed first monastery (majority of community never leaves—except for abbess/abbot

• monastery is new kind of same-sex family

• decided need for written constitution, personal charisma not enough to hold together community

• when alone together, should be led by text

Monastery

Where nuns/monks live and practice monasticism

Monastic Rule

Set of laws/codes for monks/nuns to follow

• Pachomian Rule is first Monastic Rule

• Monastic rules are very Roman—community follows/adopts written law

• many can follow Rule and achieve this perfect Christianity even after authors of Rule are dead —> in touch with past, tradition lives on

Abbess/Abbot

Elected leaders of monastery

• they can leave the monastery

• interact with community and society to filter the outside world economically and religiously

St Basil of Caesarea (d. 397)

Rule of St Basil (in Greek)becomes the most popular rule in Eastern monasticism

• his whole family is in various monasteries

Basilian

Basilian Rule stresses unity and total sovereignty of community

• abbot is spokesperson of the will of the community —> community is most important thing

• create on earth the perfect community of Heaven

“Otium cum Dignitate”

“Separate with Dignity”: monastic commitment to public service and periodically separate

• can still help community

St Benedict (d. 550)

Most popular Latin rule

• take a while for it to catch on, but by the 9th century Benedictine ways prevail as only Latin rule

• a rule of immense discretion

• balance between active and contemplative life

• understood how human social urges and desires can be administrated

• School for the Service of God

• abbot has much authority, balance of power leans to abbot

• swear chastity, poverty, and obedience

Active/Contemplative Life

St Benedict emphasized the balance between the active and contemplative life: “work and pray”

Montecassino

St Benedict was a student from central Italy sent to Rome to study, retires to cave in Apennine Mountains where more join him. Then moves southward to Montecassino=first Benedictine community where he lived and wrote his rule

Benedictine

Of or relating to St Benedict’s monastic rule or one who follows it monastically

Regular/Secular Clergy

Clergy divided

• regular=monastic

• secular=involved in the world

Diocese

What bishops and Roman governors rule over

• nothing subversive about “triumph of superstition”

• both clerical (much smaller) and secular authority coexist

Rhetor(ic)

2nd and 3rd century: The rhetor is a highly educated individual who has mastered rhetoric (mastery of words, capacity to convince): both public speaking and performance

• good rhetors are brought into orbits of power, sought after teacher, persuader

• public performances that all come to see

• rhetors compete and establish pecking order

• social elevation

• value in intellectual capacity

Patron-Client Relationship

Wealthy beneficiary helps members of lower social classes and has their favor in return

• socially vertical, therefore class interests of the client no longer matter

• urban and often inherited

• codified, patron has more power than client

  • asymmetric, symbiotic, reciprocal

  • lifelong, binding

Salutatio

Face-to-face relationship, client must come and greet patron daily—> gives lower class access to power of upper class

Saint

One touched by God, anointed by God

• new kind of patron arises in late antiquity and fits in with existing patron-client relationship

• gain social power

• saints better than moral patrons—access to boundless power of God, therefore can make things happen w/ the sublime power of the divine

• Christians created communities around people who divine power flowed through

Relic

holy body: clients want to be with patron even after patron’s death

• big transformation from Roman values because bodies taboo in culture—mortal remains are completely separate from the living

• departure from past values

Reliquary

Protects relic from theft, touch=contact with divine

(Relic) Translation

Bits of body are transported so more clients have access to complete presence saint

Church of the Holy Sepulcher

Christians claim this is built on spot where Jesus was buried

• Constantine

• No relics

True Cross

Church of the Holy Sepulcher contains the True Cross (what Jesus what nailed to)

Contact Relic

anything that touched holy body contains the holiness of the saint

Hagiography

New genre=writing about holy people

• presents edited/improved version of the life—keeper of the relic wants to market them

Topos

Stereotype, present in all hagiography=perfect from birth

St Martin of Tours (d. 397)

International fame

• deserts Roman army and becomes an ascetic in a cave

• moves to Tours and continues to be a hermit

• becomes a bishop

• noticed he lost some of his miracle powers once he became part of secular clergy

• worries about country people, works to convert pagans

• Martin still perfect patron 200 years later

• good for economy, international stature of city

Sulpicius Severus (d. 427)

Writes St Martin’s hagiography which becomes a model of Latin hagiography

• makes move from hermit to bishop look beneficial

• Martin remains good patron even in death, performs miracles