Topic 2: Quest for Civil Rights

Why did FDR appeal to Black voters

• FDR appealed to Black voters due to his New Deal policies, which aimed to provide relief during the Great Depression, and his administration's efforts to address racial injustices, such as the establishment of the Fair Employment Practices Committee, which sought to combat discrimination in wartime industries.

• Appointed some black advisors during his campaign, e.g. the Black Cabinet, which included influential figures like Mary McLeod Bethune and Robert Weaver, a Harvard economist and race relations advisor - encouraged by Lady Roosevelt

• New Deal programmes ‘color blind’, supporting all Americans, irrespective of race

• Executive order 8802 prohibited racial discrimination in defense industries and was a significant step towards civil rights.

Did New Deal assist Americans?

• small extent

• Meant to be color blind

• Many blacks were refused jobs that were given to whites

• Wasn’t the platform for equality it was supposed to be

Executive Order 8802

• June 1941- Fair Employment Act

• didn’t end segregation, only racial segregation and discrimination in defence industry

• Encouraged as many people into war work as poddible

• Reactive to Randolph’s protest threat of a 100000 strong all black march on Washington unless segregation banned in army and defence industry.

did the SWW improve civil rights for Americans?

• many white soldiers attitudes changed regarding courage of black counterparts

• During war, 2 African-Americans elected to Congress, Dawson (1943) and Clayton Powell JR (1945).

• Didn’t benefit greatly from war-induced boom, 2m people signed petition demanding federal aid to move to Africa

• Influx of Black Workers in 1943 resented, leading to strikes and racial violence, heightening racial tensions

Booker T Washington

• famous Black American who advocated accepting segregation and early advocate for the separatist movement

• Large following especially amongst middle class African Americans

• his white support came from their perception that he saw how southern whites feared black Americans gaining equality

• black schools and colleges were dilapidated and poorly equipped with teachers poorly paid. However, many black children learn and became successful as doctors. lawyers and teachers, proving they were as intelligent as white people -this was denied by many southerners.

Extent of segregation under Jim Crow Laws

• By 1917, slavery had been abolished in the USA, with Southerners feeling a loss of control over black people

• this led to the creation of Jim Crow laws, laws on segregation that segregated every aspect of life

• this was discussed as being the final settlement and permanent system

• these extensive laws included where to sit on the tram, where to live, where to send children school as well as separate public facilities and drinking fountains

• many workplaces segregated workers, with some having different staircases to move around the building

• states subtly discriminated by requiring voters to pass a literacy qualification to vote, with black people given harder passages in some areas

• whereas, in some states voters had to be homeowners although most blacks weren't. Some held all white elections to select candidates and many polling stations were surrounded by whites willing to attack any black person that came that turned up

Impact of Great Migration

• Between 1917 and 1932 there was a wave of black migration from the South to the north and east primarily cities

• by 1920, close to 40% of black people in the north lived in Chicago, Detroit, Cleveland, Cincinnati and Columbus

• the population in northern cities rose dramatically and black people had a larger political influence

• when this was identified in Chicago in 1919 black people were listened to more and powerful business oriented black elite grew with a great interest in segregation

• they used segregation to gain power within politics

• whilst this wasn't the case in New York they lived in smaller areas with their own schools and churches

• church formed an important part of the civil rights movement

• black migrants dislodged white workers especially when especially union members and those pushing for better conditions those businesses were able to put pressure on workers to leave unions or lose their jobs

• this meant most African Americans had jobs in these areas

• Jobs were often low paid especially replacing white workers

• accommodation was typically crowded and in rundown areas, with rent higher than for white people.

• Although some black professionals lived in black communities in nicer areas that weren't cramped and some poorer black people moved to suburbs close to white people all in need of servants and nannies

• black people could vote and were elected to federal and local government

• most had low paid jobs and were poor with skilled migrants often taking up unskilled work

How did the New Deal benefit Americans?

• New Deal was supposedly colour blind, thus intended to have the same positive impact on black as white people

• however this wasn't fully true, for example, the agencies he set up that hired by merit would move black people off programmes to hire whites with thousands of black people sacked during agricultural reforms and or sacked to make room for white workers

• social security reforms didn't apply to farm workers or those working in other's homes who were primarily

• black people black officials in government had little success in protesting protesting it this and were usually ignored aside from persuading the NRA to set the minimum wage at the same rate for black and white people

• some new deal measures helped black Americans due to their situation for example a third of low income housing had black tenants because they were most eligible for it

• whilst New Deal set out to be colour blind there were many faults and only helped those in the poorest situations, benefiting African Americans to a small extent

Role of the NAACP

• set up in 1910 with the goal of organising legal actions against segregation and gaining black Americans their legal rights starting with a campaign against lynching, which included demonstrations and marches

• they took cases of segregation to court despite their Plessy versus Ferguson case as well as providing lawyers to defend black people on trial black people on trial who'd been unjustly accused

• in the 1930s and the 1940s it won some cases yet they excelled in the 1950s winning every case fought

• therefore it's clear that the NAACP advanced rapidly prior to 1955 however the force of the rulings was weakened by the fact that the Supreme Court didn't enforce rulings not using time frames or using very vague phrases as seen in the brown II revision of Brown V Board of Education

• vague timeframes meant that this had little impact with only one percent of black children in the South in an integrated school ten years later

• there was also an increasing force of white people against desegregation

• whilst they had successes in individual cases it had little overall success as rulings weren't typically enforced

Separatist Movement

• Black Americans would never achieve true equality with whites and stop fighting for it

• Malcolm X later advocated and attracted by these ideas

• Embrace segregation and fight for equal conditions within it

• Separate living meant black children would grow up without being made to feel inferior to whites, emphasizing self-sufficiency and empowerment within their own communities.

• Separatist Garvey said solution was what white separatists wanted - go back to Africa.

limited impact of Post War boom

The post-war economic boom in the USA experienced a limited impact on African Americans. While the overall economy thrived post-World War II, many black workers were pushed out of jobs as white servicemen returned from military service and reclaimed their positions. Additionally, the boom did not translate into significant improvements in employment opportunities or socioeconomic status for black Americans. They often faced discrimination in hiring practices and were still largely confined to low-paying jobs. Government policies and programs of the era tended to favor returning white veterans, leaving many black families struggling to achieve economic stability.

Truman’s problems in tackling civil rights

• Despite advocating for civil rights, President Truman faced significant opposition from Southern Democrats, leading to limited legislative success. His attempts to integrate the military and address racial discrimination met resistance, hindering meaningful progress during his administration.

• Went against popular support - potentially political support

• Impact limited as most unwilling to change

Executive Order 9981

• 1948: Began conversation on desegregation

• Desegregated military, armed forces and all gov. industry

• First real civil rights act of 20th century

• Black soldiers gained lots of respect

• President acting individually

Was federal intervention between 1917 and 1955 minimal

• In 1941, FDR responded to Randolph railway strike with executive order 8802

• this act banned racial segregation in the defence industry, however it didn't end segregation and was reactive

• in 1948, Truman passed executive order 9981, the first real civil rights act of the 20th century.

• This desegregated the military and all government industry as well as starting a conversation on desegregation

• prior to this little policy and change was instituted as it went against popular support meaning it was potentially political suicide

• therefore I strongly agree with this statement.

Why did the NAACP challenge the ‘separate but equal’ law in Education?

• The NAACP challenged the 'separate but equal' law in education to combat racial segregation, arguing that it violated the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. They aimed to demonstrate that segregated schools were inherently unequal, which ultimately led to the landmark Supreme Court decision in Brown v. Board of Education in 1954.

• In 1951, lawyers took several cases to court on desegregating schools .

• Overruled in state courts due to separate but equal principle in Plessy Ferguson case

• took cases to the Supreme Court

• segregation of schools was unequal and ruling had no place in education

• unanimous decision in favour of Brown and NAACP

What was decided by Supreme Court and why?

• The segregated old schools, no time scale given

• Ruled that segregation was psychologically harmful for black school children

• separate educational facilities are inherently unequal and unconstitutional laws

• violate equal protection clause of 14th amendment

• no clear method of desegregation

• 1954 -judge Earl Warren: segregation of schools not equal separate but equal rule and had no place in education, appointed by Eisenhower in 1953

• represented by NAACP Chief Counsel Thurgood Marshall who was first African-American appointed to the Supreme Court under LBJ

What happened at Little Rock in 1957?

• Brown v Board desegregated schools and it was the role of president to enforce it

• Central High School, Little Rock, Arkansas, preparing to comply with gradual integration

• State Gov, Orval E Farubus: Intervened on grounds that Blacks threatened peace and safety of town

• Sort temporary injunction and called in National Guard to maintain order

• direct challenge to federal authority: Eisenhower ordered 101st airborne parts of Army to enforce law and integration

• Faubus reelected and created private school system to avoid integration

• central High was later closed

Intervention of Eisenhower and significance

• To force Faubus to allow black students in

• enforce the law and his policies

• allow black students to integrate

• challenge Faubus as he had done with federal authority

• he was quite open to integration in many ways and was keen to enforce civil rights policies where they weren't being followed as in Little Rock

• civil Rights Act 1957 was later signed into law by Eisenhower

Emmett Till

• born July 1941, African-American

• 28.8.1955: 14yr old Till lynched in Mississippi after reportedly flirting with a white woman

• Beaten, mutilated, shot and dumped in river - wasn’t discovered for 3 days

• Mother insisted on open casket funeral

• Images of his body published in ‘Chicago Defender’- made international news and directed attention to rights of blacks in the South

• Encourages white liberal sympathy for cause and gained significant attention to civil rights cause and furthered calls for it

• International coverage of cause, putting pressure on federal gov.

• Shows true extent of racism at the time

• Media attention, escalated human rights cause

Rosa Parks

• Member of and secretary of NAACP

• 42yr old black woman who refused to give up her seat to a white man on a bus in Montgomery, Alabama

• NAACP defended her in court, although she was arrested, fired and treated like a criminal for violating Jim Crow laws

• Her actions sparked the Montgomery Bus Boycott, a pivotal event in the Civil Rights Movement, leading to increased activism and the eventual desegregation of public transportation. Regarded as the first large-scale demonstration against segregation in the USA.

• Put MLK into fame, with him becoming leading spokesperson for cause

• Birthday (4th Feb) and day of arrest both became commemorated in California and Ohio

Montgomery Bus boycott

• 5th December 1955- 20th December 1956

• African Americans in Montgomery refused to ride city buses

• Nonviolent protest that lasted 381 days

• Supreme Court authorities eventually ordered Montgomery to desegregate bus system

• MLK Junior one of the leaders and a young pastor emerged as prominent national leader of American civil rights movement

• achieved desegregation on buses

• affected bus company and shops financially

• emphasised importance of a local base

• gained significant media attention - coverage everyday on every news channel in every state nationally

achievements of Montgomery Bus boycott

• Supreme Court Browder v. Gayle: Ruled in favour, declared segregation unconstitutional on behalf of four women mistreated

• widespread reform: desegregation on buses and other public transport

• Thrust MLK to forefront of movement

• showed importance and power of nonviolent events and for protest

• catalyst for sit-ins and Freedom Riders

• started social revolution and gained exposure to cause

• if black people stood together they could change white racism

Martin Luther King Background

• Born in 1929 to middle class Christian family

• father brave and defiant against discrimination and father said he would make something of him

• befriended a white boy as a child but lost touch due to segregation

• famous for public speaking and excelled at school

• achieved a degree in sociology and divinity and later a PhD

• intended to marry a white girl but advised it would cause interracial backlash

• became pastor and leader of local African American community

• spokesperson for MIA during by during Boycotts

• married Coretta Scott and they had four children

Role and strategy of Southern Christian Leadership Conference

• Formed in 1957 based on Gandhi's beliefs

• refined ideas on nonviolent island protests to set best impression with media

• must be clear who is oppressor and the oppressed, never give image of a violent black person

• getting arrested as public as possible; peaceful means good publicity

• Accept as many white people as possible in on protests

• MLK happy to meet with whites who could aid their cause

• after bus boycott, he was the face of CRM due to his charisma- criticised as so were other civil rights activists

• Media focused on MLK, who fully appreciated the power of media

Greensboro Sit-Ins

• A series of nonviolent protests in 1960 where African American students sat at segregated lunch counters, demanding equal service and highlighting racial injustice.

• 4 young African American students (McNeil, McCain, Blair, Richmond) weren’t served at Woolworths white-only lunch counter

• Manager asked them to leave but refused and stayed until close

• Returned next morning with 20 peers and 60 by the third day

• 4th day: 63/66 seats on counter occupied by African-Americans and the other 3 by waitresses

• White youths abused black students during sit-in

Impact of Greensboro sit-ins

• covered by media

• Ripple effect across the nation, inspiring similar protests and increasing awareness of racial inequality. The sit-ins played a crucial role in the civil rights movement, leading to the desegregation of lunch counters and other public facilities.

• Took place in 30 cities, later 55 in 13 states, spread to north

purpose of the Freedom Rides

• CORE and SNCC (student non violent coordinating committee, 1960) carried out series of freedom rides in 1961

• Test whether restrooms in bus stations in South had been desegregated according to 1961 Supreme Court ruling

• organised by farmer, leader of CORE and one of the big six

• first two buses attacked and riders beaten

• Aniston, Alabama: 1 bus fire bombed after Chase of 50 cars, some police cars

Were the Freedom rides successful?

Media showed most of the violence and Provided the CRM with lots of positive publicity especially as even the white riders were beaten

Birmingham, Alabama

• 3rd April- 10 May 1963

• The city was the heartland of a city that was openly segregationist

• authorities racist and likely to react with violence: ensured media presence and children on front line

• Bull Connor, Commissioner for public safety of city saw MLK's move as direct challenge to authority

• Ordered the use of fire hoses and police attack dogs against protesters including their children

• images shown globally: unarmed demonstrators attacked by police

• MLK arrested

• JFK said Connor had done more for civil rights than anyone else

• 42 per cent saw race as most pressing problem compared to 4% in 1962

• catalyst for major social and legal change in South and contributed to civil rights act 1964

Primary factors for success of Birmingham March

• MLK’s brilliance: Targeted right city, new they'd react with violence as they were openly racist

• media attention: coverage maximised impact as photos courts accurate accurate representation of police's brutality - spread nationally and internationally

• letter from jail: made sure he was imprisoned and publicised letter

• forcing JFK to act: convinced him to urgently act and restore fourteenth amendment especially due to election based on new liberalism

Reasons for March on Washington (August 1963)

• NAACP, SNCC, CORE and National Urban League represented united Show of Solidarity for CRM and put more pressure on JFK

• highlights extent of CRM: 250,000 attended, JFK expected 100,000

• hundred years after Lincoln's emancipation proclamation

• famous I have a dream speech

• raise public awareness and trigger federal involvement

Groups that attended March on Washington

• Wilkins and NAACP

• Young and National Urban League

• Lewis and SNCC

• Farmer and CORE

• Randolph

attendance at Washington march

• 250000 people

• 75-80% black. 20-25% white

• Growing amount of white support, especially in North

why wasn’t there violence in Birmingham

• authorities allowed it

• Washington more liberal and accepting of free speech

• Birmingham was due to racist authorities, not violence of protestors

what message did MLK convey in his speech and how did it relate to the American Dream?

• 100 yrs after Lincoln’s proclamation, African Americans are still poorly treated. They are still victims of police brutality, constant segregation and a lack of access to voting.

• African Americans and white people should work together to achieve integration. Unified many

• freedom is vital to his dream

• strongly linked to freedom of American Dream

Impact of MLK’s speech on white, middle-class Americans and its international reception

• media gave march national exposure with over 500 cameras - broadcast on news nationally

• Malcolm X described it as a picnic and circus, making them look like clowns

• segregationists criticised gov for cooperating with activists.

• Olin D Johnston, Senator for SC: no one will listen to them

• better reception in North than South

Was MLK’s speech the pinnacle of the CRM?

• brought everyone together in integration - 25% of observers were white

• over 500 cameras

• put Civil Rights into the forefront of the media

• There was no presence of violence and created a more positive image of American-Americans

March on Selma - 7-21 March 1965

• 3 attempts to make march successful

• marched from Selma to Montgomery to highlight how they were being prevented from voting and how it went against constitution

• only 2% of black voters in Selma registered to vote, despite 1964 Civil Rights Act

• George Wallace, Governor of Alabama, was racist and opposed segregation

• first march began on 7th March, but it led to extreme violence. 4 people were killed, 17 hospitalised and 50 treated for minor injuries

• 9th March: stopped by MLK halfway across Edmund Pettus bridge

• 21st March: 50mi march to Montgomery successful having took 3 days. Put pressure on federal gov and march was supported by FBI and National Guard, who were ordered to stand down or participate

• LBJ put pressure on Congress, leading to Voting Rights Act 1965

• Edmund Pettus: confedorate general, senator in Alabama (1940s), leader of KKK, supported slavery and racism

1965 Voting Rights Act

• march on Selma forced LBJ to intervene - VRA passed via Congress

• signed into law by LBJ - 6th August 1965

• 26th amendment to US constitution, allowing all US citizens over the age of 18 to vote

• Congress has power to enforce and states unable to deny

• landmark piece of fed. legislation - prohibited racial discrimination in voting at height of CRM

• enforced voting rights of 14th and 15th Amendments, securing voting rights for racial minorities

• Dept of Justice - most effective piece of Civil Rights legislation ever enacted in the country

why did MLK choose to concentrate on the Northern States after 1964 and what issues were there?

• problems there weren’t to easily solved

• serious overcrowding, lack of jobs, large scale ghettoisation, which led to concentrated racial tension

• 800k black people lived in Chicago

• racial riots in key cities - angered by 15yr old African American being shot by police officers

• July 1964, Harlem riots: 4000 participated, causing millions of dollars of damage, one death, 150 injuries and over 500 arrested

• 1965 Watts Riot, LA: 3400 arrests, 1000 injured, 34 killed, 14000 members of California Army National Guard deployed, over 40 million dollars of property destroyed and over 700 shops looted.

• counter to MLK’s views and in support of MX’s perspective

why did MLK lose some momentum with the media during this period?

• openly spoke out against Vietnam war and seen as anti-gov

• less controversial in the North

• focus on violence, what has he achieved?

• Congress ordered FBI to investigate him due to stance >1965, with MLK branded as a communist.

Malcolm X’s background

• born in 1925 in Omaha, Nebraska

• KKK harassed his family and burned his house down (1929)

• father killed by tram in 1931 -rumours KKK had murdered him and staged his death. Mother became mentally ill and he got put into care

• “All negroes are angry and I’m the angriest of them all”

• told he couldn’t become a lawyer by his English Teacher, left school at 15

• involved in crime: burglary, selling drugs and bootleg alcohol

• sentenced to 10yrs in 1946

successes of Malcolm X

• made Black power prominent in North (especially urban areas) who experience ghettoisation. social and economic persecution, as well as police brutality. Known internationally by going to speak at Oxford Union

• separatist until close to the end

• smart with media and gaining media focus

• man who came from nothing - epitomising American Dream, his Black Power movement and legacy

failures of Malcolm X

• often accused of black supremacy, especially due to advocacy for separatism

• inciting violence clouds people’s judgement of him

• questionable connection with Nation of Islam, which ultimately killed him, despite making him household name

does Malcolm X deserve his reputation?

• made black power movement prominent - Oxford Union speech in 1965

• encouraged those facing ghettoisation, police brutality and persecutioon

• used the media to his advantage and able to gain large media focus

• Black Power movement endures

when was the SNCC founded?

• created in 1960 as racially integrated organisation of young people

• inspired by Greensboro Sit-ins, work of MLK and CORE

• believed in direct non-violent action, members took training in facing abuse

• increase number of black voters in South - Civil Rights needed black voters

• took non-violent protest to potentially more violent areas, stepping up MLK’s campaigns in more reasonable areas

• initially led by Ella Barker, with help from MLK’s SCLC. Later led by Stokely Carmichael, more radical.

movements and events the SNCC were involved with

• Freedom rides

• Birmingham March

• I have a Dream speech

• March on Selma

• targeted black voting in: Mississippi, Georgial, Albany and Alabama

Lowndes Country Freedom Organisation

• American political party founded in 1965 in Lowndes County Alabama by the SNCC under Carmichael

• placed emphasis on Black people voting for black candidates

• beginning of Black Panther movement and showcased how they were evolving to become politically strong

• combined MX’s ruthless, supremacist and separatist approach to human rights beyond his assassination in 1965.

why did Carmichael change the slogan of African-American CRM to Black Power?

• events in 1966 pushed him towards radicalism

• wanted to remove association with white campaigners to make it a purely black movement

• replaced slogan ‘freedom’ with ‘Black power’ with raised arm and clenched fist, performed by some athletes at 1968 olympics

• get rid of non-violence and inspire black supremacy

• radical social change and equal implementation of the law

• harness violence to bring about radical social change

• created large divide and division between non-violence and radicalism

who founded the Black Panthers

• Huey Newton and Bobby Seale in Oakland CA - spread to at least 60 other cities in North and South due to the media

• Black power group: militant background with uniforms and carried firearms, amassing government attention

• reacted to violence with violence or worse

• founded over 60 government support programmes, e.g. providing free breakfasts and lunches in schools, helped maintain order

• powerful supporters: Mao Zedong and Fidel Castro - anti-establishment

• Nixon’s FBI COINTELEPPO intentions to destroy it: over 30 killed by police and FBI

• FBI director Hoover: greatest internal threat to USA’s security as it fostered gang culture and violence

• Whites: culture of fear, communists, gangs, violence - revolutionaries

• Blacks: helpful, community, army

demands of Black Panther’s Ten Point Plan

• relatively reasonable to extent: full employment, freedom and power to determine destiny, decent housing

• separatist notions: all black men to be exempt from military service, black people to be tried by a jury of their peer group/ black communities

• communist notions: end to robbery by capitalists, education that exposes true society, land, bread and housing

• some were slightly ridiculous: freedom for all black men from prisons, end to murder

success of Black Power movement

• gained significant amounts of media attention and support

• many demands unreasonable, separatist or communist

• affirmative action = favouring black people in education/jobs to improve equality and address past issues

African American Rights - leaders and groups

• groups: Lowndes county, SNCC, Nation of Islam, Black Panthers, NAACP, SCLC, CORE

• leaders: MLK, MX, Rosa Parks, Booker T. Washington, Marcus Garvey, Stokely Carmichael, Randolph, Big 6.

African American Rights - federal intervention

• March on Washington

• Civil Rights Act 1957 and 1964

• Brown v Topeka

• Freedom Rides

• Voting Rights Act

• Plessy v Ferguson

• 13th-16th Amendments

• Sweet Trial

• March on Selma

• Exec Order 8802 and 9981

• Little Rock 9

• desegregation of military

• New Deal

African American Rights - Media

• Selma March

• MLK assassination

• Emmett Till

• MX visiting UK

• Montgomery bus boycott

• Little Rock 9

• MX assassination

• Rosa Parks

• Northern Crusades

• Black Panther shootouts

• trial and assassination of Huey Newton

• Freedom rides

how and why did minority rights campaigns take inspiration from CRM?

• great success of CRM 1950-65: left lasting impression and encouraged others to push for equality

• methods: sit-ins, media coverage, speeches, marches, strikes, freedom rides, encouraging white liberal support - often replicated

• after 1960: campaigns became more profound

• they were successful and want to achieve at same level. Most of society thought of civil rights legislation as only for African Americans

• much of this activity fed into counter-culture movements of 60s and 70s

• >1968: gov had to face Black power, red power and brown power, contributing to disruption during the 70s

Bureau of Indian Affairs

• created in 1824 to administer Indian affairs

• enforced 1830 Indian Removal Act: Native Red Indians forcibly removed from their land or federal army sent in

key Native-American civil rights groups

• NCAI: worked within gov and legal system, avoiding radicalism. Wanted return of tribal homelands and rights to self-determination

• AIM: occupied wounded knee village in February 1973 and declared independence as Sioux Nation. Also organised sit-ins and occupations.

• ARPM: occupied Alcatraz for 19 months until 1971, leading to federal intervention. Feb-July 1978, longest walk from San Francisco to Washington, protesting removal from homelands and Congress’ unwillingness to negotiate treaties.

successes of Native American CRM

• Nixon sympathised and wanted to provide amicable solution. Rejected termination and forced assimilation

• Nixon’s advisors asked to consult tribal leaders to create a solution

• Indian Education Act, 1972: funding for tribal schools not teaching English

• Indian Financing Act, 1974: lent tribes money for housing and settlements

• Indian self-determination act, 1975: allowed Natives to control own healthcare and education.

• Voting Rights Act, 1975: gave Natives the vote

• some land returned

what didn’t the Native American movement achieve?

• no clear leader/ leadership

• quite small: 4500 members in AIM

• Nixon didn’t reform BIA or reform other sacred sites taken

• majority of tribes didn’t receive any land back

• many continued to be evicted once land deemed useful for USA

Bracero program

• US gov. initiative and Mexican immigration drive

• Mexicans signed contract to work in USA for set period, with guaranteed housing and working conditions

• 1942-64: 4.6m contracts signed

• widespread segregation and prejudice against Hispanics

• Mexicans hated and resented due to the fact many worked on farms and for less than white counterparts

• increased unemployment and issues with immigration

objectives of Hispanic-American Rights movement/ campaign for equality

• equal treatment to whites

• land and ability to buy it

• workers’ rights, especially for farmers

• end to discrimination

• end to deportations

Cezar Chavez

• Hispanic-American born in Arizona

• served in US Navy for 2yrs

• co-founded National Farm Workers Association in 1962

• campaigned mainly for workers’ rights

• used non violent methods inspired by Gandhi: hunger strikes, marches and protests

• 1st Hunger strike: 1968, lasted 25 days

• 2nd Hunger strike: 1972, lasted 24 days

failures of Hispanic-American CRM

• progress low and took over a decade for any other achievements

• 1966 Adj. Act limited only to Cuban-Americans and no other Hispanics - perhaps due to Castro

• successes varied between states, as well as government involvement

• land disputes continued to exist widely

successes of Hispanic American CRM

• 1954: Supreme Court ruled Hispanics equal citizens

• 1966, Cuban-American Adjustment Act: citizenship for all who’d lived in US longer than a year

• 1968, Mexican legal, defence and education fund: pursue civil rights in courts

• 1973: Equal Education provision in some states

• 1974, Equal Opportunities Act: led to more bilingual teaching in schools

• 1975, Voting Rights Act: language assistance at polling stations; all Native Americans, Hispanics and Asians had the vote.

• Chavez: working conditions largely improved and degree of success in education and housing legally

what problems did the LGBT community experience?

• widespread prejudice and discrimination: shops wouldn’t always serve them, hotels would deny them rooms

• illegal to be homosexual in 50 states, set precedence allows persecution - invisible community

• 1948: psychiatrists argued homosexuality was an illness, supported by Congress in the 1950s

• Lavender Scare: alongside Red Scare to root out homosexuals, thousands lost jobs - 5000 from federal employment due to Eisenhower’s exec. order 10450, many forced to relocate.

objectives of LGBT Rights movement

• decriminalisation of homosexual acts

• dissemination of accurate and objective information on homosexuality

• equal treatment and rights under law

• public demonstrations and emphasis on visibility

Stonewall Riots

• well-known gay bar in New York that was raided by police for supposedly breaking a liquor law in June 1969

• led to days of protests and violence over the GRM in and around New York

• gained lots of publicity and media attention

• 1st catalyst for gay community to rally behind and gains support for marches/protests

• marches in NY, Chicago, San Francisco and LA on 1st anniversary

• led to creation of Gay Liberation Front in July 1969

Anita Bryant

• Christian New Right, mother and Christian fundamentalist

• successful in repealing gay rights ordinances, e.g. Minnesota, Kansas and Oregon

• led Save our Children campaign during the 1970s

Briggs Initiative -1978

• sponsored by John Briggs, conservative state legislator from Orange County

• unsucessful ballot initiative put to referendum in CA state election in 1978

• sought to ban gays and lesbians from working in CA public schools

• failed due to openly gay activists, e.g. Milk and activists such as Sally Miller

achievements of LGBT movement

• media visibility and public affirmation of homosexual identity

• constraints on police harassment

• right to publish gay magazines

• dialogue in religious/scientific communities

• first employment discrimination cases won

• new rhetoric of pride and affirmation

• *homosexuality wasn’t decriminalised in certain states until 2003

Was federal legislation the main reason for improvements in African-American civil rights 1955-80?

While federal legislation, such as the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965, played a crucial role in dismantling institutionalized racism and providing legal protections against discrimination, several other factors contributed to advancements in African-American civil rights during this period. These include grassroots activism, significant movements such as the Civil Rights Movement fueled by organizations like the NAACP and SCLC, court cases challenging segregation, and the social and political climate of the era that fostered change. Additionally, media coverage of civil rights protests helped raise public awareness, leading to greater support for legislative reforms.

How successful was the Black Power movement in the year 1964-68?

The Black Power movement, emerging prominently in 1966, marked a shift in the civil rights discourse, emphasizing racial pride, economic empowerment, and cultural identity for African Americans. Its success can be evaluated through several dimensions:

1. Cultural Impact: The Black Power movement fostered a renewed sense of identity among African Americans, leading to the celebration of black culture through art, music (like soul and hip-hop), and literature. The slogan 'Black is Beautiful' resonated widely, encouraging pride in African heritage.

2. Political Mobilization: It sparked political engagement, encouraging African Americans to participate in politics and advocate for their rights. Organizations such as the Black Panther Party, founded in 1966, began to focus on community self-defense and social programs, providing services like free breakfast programs and health clinics.

3. Grassroots Organization: The movement succeeded in building local organizations that addressed community needs and highlighted issues of systemic injustice. This groundwork laid the foundation for future political actions and empowerment.

4. Conflict and Backlash: However, the movement also encountered significant backlash, including police violence and federal repression. The perception of Black Power as militant and confrontational sometimes alienated mainstream civil rights supporters.

5. Long-term Influence: While its immediate successes were mixed, the Black Power movement had a lasting influence on subsequent generations, shaping discussions on race, identity, and community empowerment well into the future

How successful were the movements for Native American rights in the years 1945-80?

The Native American rights movement from 1945 to 1980 focused on sovereignty, civil rights, and cultural preservation. Key successes included:

1. Legal Milestones: The Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 aimed to reverse some aspects of assimilation policy, and efforts were bolstered in this period by the Indian Civil Rights Act of 1968, which granted Native Americans certain rights within state jurisdictions.
2. Activism: The American Indian Movement (AIM), founded in 1968, led significant protests and events, such as the occupation of Alcatraz Island (1969-1971) and the standoff at Wounded Knee (1973), bringing national attention to indigenous issues.
3. Cultural Revitalization: There was a resurgence of Native culture, languages, and identities, as communities began to take pride in their heritage.
4. Successful Land Claims: Numerous legal battles resulted in the return of lands or financial compensation for tribal nations, particularly notable in cases like the 1971 settlement of the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act.

Overall, while significant legal and cultural advancements were achieved, many challenges remained concerning poverty, unemployment, and ongoing disputes over land and rights.

How successful were the movements for Mexican-American rights in the years 1945-80?

The Mexican-American civil rights movement sought to address discrimination, economic challenges, and political underrepresentation. Key successes included:

1. Political Engagement: The formation of organizations like the League of United Latin American Citizens (LULAC) and the Mexican American Political Association (MAPA) increased voter registration and political participation, leading to greater representation in local and national government.
2. Labor Rights: Leaders like Cesar Chavez and Dolores Huerta spearheaded the United Farm Workers (UFW) movement, advocating for labor rights, better working conditions, and fair wages, successfully organizing strikes and boycotts, like the Delano grape strike (1965-1970).
3. Education and Equality: The movement sought educational reforms, leading to pivotal rulings such as the landmark case of Hernandez v. Texas in 1954, which ruled that Mexican Americans had the right to a jury of their peers.
4. Cultural Identity: The Chicano movement sought to promote pride in Mexican cultural identity, with emphasis on art, literature, and history, fostering a sense of community and activism.

While progress was made, challenges persisted regarding systemic inequalities and anti-immigrant sentiment.

How successful were the movements for gay rights in the years 1945-80?

The gay rights movement gained momentum from the mid-20th century, seeking equality and the end of discrimination against LGBTQ+ individuals. Key successes included:

1. Activism and Visibility: The Stonewall Riots of 1969 were a watershed moment, galvanizing activists and leading to the formation of groups like the Gay Liberation Front, which advocated for LGBTQ+ rights and visibility.
2. Legal Advances: Activists challenged laws that criminalized homosexuality, leading to a gradual shift in public attitudes. Notably, in 1973, the American Psychiatric Association removed homosexuality from its list of mental disorders, marking a significant change in perception.
3. Community Builds: The movement fostered the development of supportive networks and organizations, providing social services and advocacy platforms, significantly during the AIDS crisis that emerged in the late 1970s, mobilizing health-focused activism.
4. Pride Celebrations: The first Pride marches following the Stonewall Riots in June 1970 highlighted LGBTQ+ visibility and solidarity, laying groundwork for future celebrations and recognition.

While substantial progress was made, the movement also faced considerable opposition, stigma, and challenges, particularly related to the AIDS crisis in the 1980s

The South: poverty, segregation and discrimination (1917-32)

• over 80% of black Americans lived in the South

• despite 14th/15th Amendments: Southern black people remained economically, legally, socially and politically disadvantaged and subjected to discrimination and violence

• most black people impoverished sharecroppers

• all aspects of Southern life segregated: hospitals, prisons, schools, restaurants and graveyards

• Plessy v Ferguson ruling: segregation should follow rule separate but equal - black facilities invariably inferior to white facilities

• Southern white people stopped black people from voting - expensive poll taxes, prove their grandfathers had voted or pass literacy tests

• many black people lived in fear of being lynched by white mobs

the South - Black success

• segregation meant some black Americans more prosperous than others as: doctors, lecturers, churchmen, shopkeepers and civil rights leaders

• Booker T Washington: influential after 1895, regarded economic improvement and education as first necessary step for black people. Black people should accept segregation until it was achieved.

• W.E.B. Du Bois: aimed at legal and political equality for black people. Established NAACP in 1909, white tried to promote black equality and desegregation through the law courts.

Northern Migration

• >1910: many black people migrated to northern cities to: find better jobs, especially after 1914 when FWW stimulated US manufacturing; to vote; and were less likely to be lynched.

• Black people still segregated in the North: they congregated in poorer parts of cities, which became ghettos.

• Discrimination, along with limited educational and employment opportunities, made it hard to escape. Great Depression hit northern black people hard, with many losing their jobs.

• Race riots: working-class white people resented black competition for jobs and housing. Riots started by white mobs broke out, like in 1919 when soldiers returned from the FWW.

• Chicago: 23 black people and 15 white people were killed, 1000 black families left homeless after mob destroyed homes and some businesses.

Black Pride

• Jamaican-born Marcus Garvey founded the UNIA in 1914 to inspire pride in black people and culture. Established himself as a rousing speaker in Harlem

• Garvey’s support for separatism antagonised Du Bois and NAACP

• UNIA quickly collapsed once Garvey was deported in 1927

The Ku Klux Klan

• Klan had grown up in the South after the Civil War to maintain white supremacy

• prosecuted by government - quickly declined

• re-founded in 1915 following Birth of a Nation - glorified Klan members as defenders of white civilisation

• New Klan national as opposed to sourthern

• Many white northerners and westerners resented black people and Catholic/Jewish immigrants from Europe

• 1925: the Klan had 5m members, dominating legislatures in several states

• series of scandals led it to decline in the 1920s

impact of the New Deal

• FDR dependent on southern Democrat support in Congress - political suicide to have gone out of his way to help black Americans. Also didn’t support a number of anti-lynching bills

• disproportionate number of the poor were black, so New Deal programmes affected them greatly. 1m million black Americans obtained jobs via the New Deal.

• FDR made many appointments promoting black Americans to senior positions in the federal bureaucracy

• Eleanor Roosevelt spoke in favour of civil rights

• Black Americans believed FDR had their interests at heart. Before 1932, they typically voted Republican - Lincoln’s party. By 1936, they overwhelmingly voted Democrat.

positive impact of the SWW

• 2m black people moved from South to Northern and Western cities - mainly to find better jobs

• Exec Order 8802, 1941: end discrimination because of race, creed, color or national origin in the defence industries and the government

• many black Americans trained for military leadership and black officers commanded black regiments

• many black servicemen based in Britain, where they experienced life with less prejudice

• US fight against Nazi Germany inspired more black Americans to campaign against own lack of freedom and equality. Black leaders pointed out evils of Nazism replicated somewhat the racist South - some white Americans recognised justice of this claim

• CORE established in 1942

• NAACP membership rose from 50k (1940) to 450k (1945)

• 1945-46: many black veterans used the GI bill to go to college or learn skilled trade. Educated professionals and technicians helped expand the black middle class at the heart of the 50s and 60s CRMs

negative impact of the SWW

• american forces remained segregated

• many trade unions continued to exclude black Americans, who were mainly assigned low-level jobs

• many white workers resented black workers: 250 hate strikes and race riots

Truman’s presidency

• openly racist in his youth, developed sense of responsibility towards black Americans

• racial discrimination could discredit the USA - claimed to stand for freedom, democracy and equality

• 1946, Committee on civil rights established: produced report called To Secure these rights, called for an end to segregation. Recommendations ignored by Congress

• 1958, executive order aimed at ending segregation in US armed forces by 1954 - accelerated by Korean War

• used executive powers to give equal employment opportunities in federal bureaucracy

• appointed black Americans to significant posts

• used federal purchasing power to try to coax businessmen into equal employment practices

• limited and aimed at winning the black northern vote, whilst increasing public awareness of the need for change

NAACP’s actions 1934-55

Du Bois left in 1934 due to disagreements and succeeded by Walter White, who promoted civil rights in a variety of ways:

• worked with the trade unionists, churches and white liberals to forge a coalition to persuade the House of Reps to promote anti-lynching bills

• NAACP mobilised southern black people to campaign for poll taxes to be abolished

• continuing its work through law courts, NAACP used black lawyers such as Thurgood Marshall

NAACP’s achievements

• SC’s decision in Smith v Allwright (1944) made it easier for southern black Americans to vote

• 1950: SC ruled that a black student could attend a white TX law school that was superior to the local black one

• Brown v Board - schools should be desegregated. Landmark ruling and starting point of CRMs - no timetable for action

• increased black awareness

James Farmer and CORE

• James Farmer aimed to achieve black equality in an integrated society

• CORE established in 1942

• methods more militant than those of the NAACP

• organised: sit-ins at segregated Chicago restaurants and Freedom Rides in North/South border states to try to ensure enforcement of SC ruling on desegregation in interstate transport

Montgomery bus boycott

• 1955: NAACP activist Rosa Parks challenged segregation in Montgomery

• deliberately sat in white seat - arrested and tried

• arrest electrified local black community

• NAACP enlisted black church leaders to organise, inspire and finance a bus boycott in protest

• boycotts weren’t new - black Americans used them with varying degrees of success since 1900

• boycott had major impact: media attention, esp. TV; leadership of MLK

• boycott nearly bankrupted city’s bus companies

• brought an end to segregation on the city’s buses - Dec 1956

situation in 1955

• Propaganda, pressure-group agitation and economic/political factors began to have an effect on segregation

• many unis and colleges desegrefated

• major leagues in baseball, basketball and American football desegregated

• more southern black Americans could vote and more black Americans being elected and appointed to office in the Upper South

• Black Americans beginning to make an important contribution to literature and music - blues and rock and roll - which began to influence young white Americans

• white Americans in the Deep South were determined to maintain white supremacy

Little Rock, Arkansas

• 1957: nine black students tried to attend Central High School

• when white students, supported by state Governor Faubus tried to stop them entering, Eisenhower sent federal troops to Little Rock and federalised Arkansas’ National Guard so it was under his command

Martin Luther King

• established SCLC in 1957

• aimed to end segregation and gain political equality for Southern black people

• influenced by Gandhi’s tactics - determined to use non-violent means of protest

sit-ins

• 1960: students in Greensboro NC successfully used Farmer’s sit-in method in an all-white Woolworth’s cafe

• action copied across the South in segregated hotels, cafes and libraries

• Boycotts supplemented sit-ins, pray-ins and stand-ins

• Variety of organisations involved: CORE, SCLC and SNCC

• ministers of black churches played an important role

JFK’s presidency

• 1961- Freedom Rides challenged interstate transport segregation

• King used peaceful marches to draw attention to segregation and disenfranchisement

• 1962: James Meredith challenged segregation at Ole Miss. Sent troops to Mississippi to support him and also to Birmingham Alabama

• SCLC, SNCC and NAACP worked together on voter registration in Mississippi

• 1963: over 1000 desegregation protests across the South

• 1062: Kennedy supported brother Robert Kennedy, the attorney general, who worked to desegregate transportation and other facilities

• 1963: supported wide ranging Civil Rights Bill, but discredited by Congress

Johnson’s Presidency

• Civil Rights Act - pushed JFK’s bill through Congress in 1964

  • set up an Equal Employment Commission

  • ensured desegregation of schools

  • outlawed segregation in public facilities

  • strengthened black American voting rights

• Civil Rights Act, 1968: banned discrimination in housing

• Johnson’s War on Poverty: assisted black people

Northern riots

• 1964: Northern and western cities experienced riots in the Ghettos, which continued for 4 years

• 1965: watts riot, which lasted 6 days

• 1967: 43 deaths in Detroit - riots perceived to arise from black poverty in the North, with defacto segregation

• 1967-68, National Advisory Committee on Civil Disorder, lead by Governor Kerner: warned of danger of USA splitting into 2 warring civilisations - black and white. Also emphasised the need for a massive federal aid programme in the ghettos.

Malcolm X

• sentenced to 10yrs in prison for drugs, pimping and armed robbery

• voice of Black Power movement, converted to Nation of Islam in prison

• Nation of Islam: established in Detroit in 1930 and then led by Elijah Mohammed. They stressed the evil nature of white people, claiming it made sense for the races to live separately and for black people to develop an independent American nation.

• Malcolm became the Nation’s most famous preacher. Membership rose to 40000. Opponents accused him of black racism and aiming for black supremacy.

• 1964: Malcolm left NOI having fallen out with Muhammad.

• Pilgrimage to Mecca led him to see Islam as a way to overcome racism

• Established Organisation of Afro-American Unity

• Assassinated by NOI members in 1965

Black Power

• Separatists infiltrated and took over some of the key civil rights orginaisations - SNCC and CORE

• Carmichael popularised the slogans - Black Power, “Black is beautiful” and “Back to Africa2

• Black Panther party founded by Newton and Seale in California. 30 urban chapters won considerable respect in the ghettos, especially with their emphasis on self-help. Established clinics to advise on health, welfare and legal rights. Also provided childcare for working mothers and set up a free breakfast programme

King’s Northern strategy - economic justice

• began to stress this opposed to emphasising political freedom, demanding fairer wealth distribution.

• Believed methods used in the South - marches and publicity - would achieve improvements in the north

• confidence misplaced as Northern white Americans opposed his strategy. Most had no wish to pay higher taxes or live next door to black Americans - many as racist as white Southerners

• 1967: admitted that his Poor People’s Campaign wasn’t working and had failed to arouse northern black American or the conscience of northern white Americans

King’s assassination

• assassinated by a white man in Memphis in April 1968

• mass outpouring of grief and anger led to riots in more than 100 US cities

• 46 people died, 2000 were injured, 21000 were arrested and $67m of property was destroyed