Lab exam 2

what are the two distinct regions of the kidney

renal cortex and renal medulla

what is a nephron

functional unit of kidney

what are the 3 main functions of the renal system

filtration, reabsorption and secretion

what is filtration

water and solutes are filtered from blood creating filtrate. NO PROTEIN OR CELLS

what is reabsoprtion

reabsorbs nutrients we need in the body(na, k, ca, cl, hpo4, glucose)

what is secretion

getting rid of what we don’t need or the waste

what are the 4 characteristics of a urine sample

color, odor, gravity and composition

what can affect the 4 characteristics of urine

fluid intake, diet, activity, medications and health conditions

what is specific gravity

how concentrated or diluted the urine is(ratio of urine vs water)

what measures specific gravity

hydrometer

normal range for specific gravity

1.002-1.030

what does low values of specific gravity in urine indicate

diabetes insidipus

what is diabetes insidipus

a condition where the kidneys cannot concentrate urine because lack of ADH

how does the color in urine vary

it varies from colorless to pale yellow to dark amber depending on concentration

why is urine yellow

due to urochrome which is produced from the breakdown of hemoglobin

what is hematuria

presence of blood In the urine

what is the clarity on urine

it is usually clear and varies from clear to slightly turbid to very turbid

what can turbidity indicate?

a uti

how does smell of urine vary

it varies from weak, slight to strong. the darker the color the stronger the odor

you can test for 6 things in the urine. what are those things

pH, glucose, ketones, leukocytes, proteins, blood, nitrite

how does pH vary in the urine

it varies from 4.6-8, the average is 6. can be affected by diet.

what can high pH indicate in urine

uti

what can a low pH indicate in urine

diabetic ketoacidosis

glycosuria

glucose in the urine(diabetes melitus)

is there typically glucose found in the urine

no, typically there is little to no glucose in the urine

what can ketones in the urine indicate

it can indicate the body is using fat for energy instead of glucose

what can high amounts of ketones in the urine indicate

diabetic ketoacidosis

when can leukocytes be found in the urine

when there is a urinary tract infection

what can nitrite in the urine indicate

uti(some bacteria turns nitrates to nitrites)

true or false proteins are typically found in the urine

false

what is proteinuria

excess protein in the urine which could be due to high blood pressure

true or false blood is normally not present in the urine

true

what is hemoglobinuria

hemoglobin found in urine

what is myoglobinuria

myoglobin found in urine

what are the special senses if the body

sight, taste, hearing, smell, equillibrium

what receptors do these senses use

special sensory receptors in the head region

taste

gustation

smell

olfaction

sight

vision

equilibrium

balance

Mechanoreceptors

respond to mechanical forces

chemoreceptors

respond to chemicals in solutions

thermoreceptors

respond to temp change

photoreceptors

respond to light(only in eyes)

Smell (olfaction) and taste (gustation)

complementary senses that let us know whether a substance should be savored or avoided

Chemoreceptors are used by

smell and tatse

Olfaction allows us

to discriminate among millions of different odors

Olfactory epithelium

organ of smell

Contains olfactory sensory neurons

• Contains olfactory cilia, covered by mucus (solvent for odorants)

Olfactory signal transduction

• Odorants bind to odorant receptors

• Neurons project from bulb to form olfactory tract to olfactory cortex

Olfactory fatigue

sensitivity to continuous odors may diminish or become nonexistent

Humans have ____ “smell” genes active in nose

400

• Each encodes a unique receptor protein

• Each odor binds to several different receptors

• Each sensory neuron has one type of receptor protein

Gustatory epithelial cells (taste cells)

taste receptor cells have microvilli called gustatory hairs that project into taste pores, bathed in saliva

Basal epithelial cells

dynamic stem cells that divide every 7–10 days

Sweet

in response to the hydroxyl groups of a molecule

Sour:

in response to hydrogen ions in acids

Salty

 in response to inorganic metallic ions, such as Na⁺ and K⁺

Bitter

in response to alkaloids (nitrogenous bases having complex ring structures) including quinine, morphine, and nicotine, and some nonalkaloid substances, such as acetylsalicylic acid (the active ingredient in aspirin)

Umami

a “deliciously savory” taste in response to the amino acids glutamate and aspartate

Photoreceptors

of retina transduce light energy into electrical signal (nerve impulse)

signals spread from photoreceptors to bipolar cells to ganglion cells, whose axons exit eye as optic nerve

Optic disk (blind spot)

site where optic nerve leaves eye; lacks photoreceptors

Rods

more numerous, function in dim light, enable us to perceive shades of gray

Cones

function in bright light, enable us to perceive sharp, colorful images

Neural pathways from retina to brain

process electrical signals into visual images

Light is refracted two times along path:

(1) passing through cornea and (2) passing though lens

For clear vision

the focal point (point where light rays converge) must fall on the retina

Accommodation

process of the eye adjusting lens shape to keep objects in focus on retina 

Near point of vision

the closest distance at which the lens can focus an object

Relaxation of the ciliary muscle

pulls on the suspensory ligaments, causing the lens to thin and flatten; good for distant vision

Contraction of the ciliary muscle

allows the suspensory ligaments to relax and the lens to thicken and roundup; good for close vision

Visual acuity

amount of detail the eye can distinguish

Myopia (near-sighted)

• difficulty viewing far objects

  • Focal point falls in front of the retina due to elongated eyeball

Hyperopia

• difficulty viewing near objects

Focal point falls behind the retina due to shortened eyeball

Astigmatism

• distorted images usually caused by a misshapen cornea

Direct pupillary light reflex

• changes in pupil size brought about by shining a light directly onto one of a subject’s pupils

Consensual pupillary light reflex

• shining a light on one pupil and observe changes in the other pupil

Optic nerve and Oculomotor nerve

• Cranial Nerve II

Conductive hearing loss:

• sound waves are not conducted from outer to inner ear

Sensorineural hearing loss

nerve impulses are not conducted from cochlear to the auditory cortex

Rinne test

• medical examination used to assess hearing function and differentiate between conductive and sensorineural hearing loss

Bone conduction

• transmission of sound through the bones of the skill to the inner ear, bypassing the eardrum 

Vestibular apparatus

• is a series of interconnected fluid-filled chambers located in the inner ear that provides information about movement and position; filled with endolymph 

Otolith organs (saccule and utricle)

• sense linear acceleration and head position

Semicircular canals

• sense rotational acceleration

Respiratory rate (RR)

number of breaths in one minute

Tachypnea

RR above 20 breaths per minute

Bradypnea

• RR below 12 breaths per minute

Spirometry

•  Subject breathes into and out of a device that records volume and frequency of air movement on a spirogram.

Lung volumes

measurements of the amount of air in the lungs

Lung capacities

sum of two or more lung volumes

Tidal volume (TV)

amount of air expired OR inspired in each breath of quiet breathing

Expiratory reserve volume (ERV)

amount of air that can be forced out AFTER tidal volume exhalation

Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)

amount of air that can be forced in AFTER tidal volume inhalation

Residual volume (RV)

amount of air left in lungs after maximum expiration

Vital capacity (VC)

maximum amount of air that can be exhaled after a maximum inhalation

• VC = TV + IRV + ERV

Inspiratory capacity (IC)

amount of gas that can be inspired after a normal expiration

• IC = TV + IRV

Functional residual capacity (FRC

amount of air in lungs after a quiet expiration

• FRC = ERV + RV

Total lung capacity (TLC)

amount of gas in the lungs after a maximum inspiration

• TLC = TV + IRV + ERV + RV

Pregnancy influence on respiratory

growing fetus and expanding uterus push diaphragm upward, crowing thoracic cavity

• Results in decrease of total lung capacity, inspiratory reserve volume, and expiratory reserve volume 

• Reduced vital capacity and functional residual capacity  

Restrictive airway conditions

• Restrict lung expansion (reduced compliance)

  • Difficulty in filling the lungs 

• Lung tissue is damaged

• Vital capacity is reduced, but forced expiration is normal

• Ex: pulmonary fibrosis

Obstructive airway conditions

• Increased airway resistance

  • Difficulty in emptying the lungs

• Lung tissue is normal.

• Vital capacity is normal, but forced expiration is reduced (difficult to exhale)

• Ex: asthma, COPD, obstructive sleep apnea