Developmental Psychology Midterm Review

Development

The systematic changes and continuities in the individual that occur between conception and death, encompassing physical, cognitive, and social development

Case Study

A research method involving an in-depth investigation of a single individual, group, phenomenon, or event to explore or understand complex issues in real-life contexts.

Naturalistic Observation

A research method where subjects are observed in their natural environment without manipulation or interference by the researcher.

Questionaire

A research instrument consisting of a series of questions designed to gather information from respondents.

Standardized Test

A test administered and scored in a consistent manner to ensure comparability of results across different individuals or groups.

Longitudinal Design

A research design that involves repeated observations of the same variables, such as a group of individuals, over long periods of time.

Cross-sectional Design

A research design that analyzes data from a population or a representative subset at a specific point in time, providing a snapshot of the variables of interest.

Sequential Design

A research design that combines elements of both longitudinal and cross-sectional designs, allowing for the study of developmental changes over time and comparisons between different age groups.

Reliability

The consistency of a research study or measuring test, indicating the extent to which it produces stable and consistent results over time.

Validity

Validity refers to the extent to which a test measures what it claims to measure, while norms are the average scores established from a specific population used as a standard for comparison.

Correlation

Correlation refers to a statistical measure that indicates the extent to which two variables fluctuate together, demonstrating a relationship between them.

Experimental design

A research design that involves manipulating one or more independent variables to determine their effect on a dependent variable, allowing for cause-and-effect conclusions.

Independent variable

The variable that is manipulated or controlled in an experiment to test its effects on the dependent variable.

Dependent variable

The variable is the outcome or behavior that is measured in an experiment, and it's expected to change based on the independent variable.

Random assignment

Random assignment is when participants in a study are randomly placed into different groups (e.g., experimental or control) to ensure each group is similar and any differences in outcomes are due to the treatment, not other factors.

Controls

Factors in an experiment that are kept constant to ensure that the effects measured are only due to the independent variable, not other variables.

Operational definition

An operational definition is a clear, specific explanation of how a concept or variable is measured or manipulated in a study, making it observable and testable

Informed Consent

Informed consent is when participants are given detailed information about a study, including its purpose, risks, and benefits, so they can decide whether to participate voluntarily.

Periods of Development

Stages of life (infancy, childhood, adolescence, adulthood) defined by key developmental changes.

Developmental Domains

Areas of development such as physical, cognitive, and social-emotional.

Naturalistic Observation

Observing behavior in a natural setting without interference

Laboratory Observation

Observing behavior in a controlled environment where variables can be manipulated

Historical Changes in the View of Childhood

Over time, childhood began to be viewed as a unique period of growth, rather than children being seen as miniature adults. Philosophers like Rousseau advocated that children should be nurtured and educated differently from adults.

Id

The unconscious part of the personality that seeks pleasure and immediate gratification

Ego

The conscious, rational part of the personality that mediates between the id and superego

Superego

The moral part of the personality that incorporates societal rules and norms

Unconscious Mind

Part of the mind containing thoughts and desires not in immediate awareness but influencing behavior

Conscious Mind

Thoughts and perceptions we are currently aware of

Defense Mechanisms

Psychological strategies used by the ego to protect itself from anxiety and uncomfortable thoughts

Fixation

A lingering focus on an earlier psychosexual stage due to unresolved conflicts

Unconditioned Stimulus

A stimulus that naturally triggers a response (ex. food causing salivation)

Unconditioned Response

A naturally occurring response to an unconditioned stimulus (ex. salivating to food)

Conditioned Stimulus

A previously neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, triggers a conditioned response

Conditioned Response

A learned response to a previously neutral stimulus that has been conditioned

Reinforcement

Increases the likelihood of a behavior by providing positive or removing negative consequences

Assimilation

Incorporating new experiences into existing mental frameworks

Accomodation

Modifying existing schemas to fit new information

Punishment

Decreases the likelihood of a behavior by presenting negative consequences or removing positive ones

Mental Schemes

Organized patterns of thought or behavior used to process information

Zone of Proximal Development

The difference between what a child can do alone and what they can do with help

Microsystem

Immediate environment influencing development (family, school)

Mesosystem

Interactions between elements of the microsystem (ex. parent-teacher relationships)

Macrosystem

Cultural and societal influences on development

Chronosystem

Changes in life and environmental events over time that influence development

Freudian Psychoanalytic Theory

Freud's theory focuses on unconscious desires and childhood experiences as key to personality development. The id, ego, and superego interact to shape behavior, and defense mechanisms protect the ego.

Erikson Psychosocial Theory

Erikson’s theory suggests that development occurs through resolving psychosocial conflicts at different stages (e.g., trust vs. mistrust, autonomy vs. shame). Each conflict must be resolved for healthy development.

Classical Learning Theory (Pavlov/Watson)

Learning occurs through associations. Pavlov's experiments with dogs (classical conditioning) showed how a neutral stimulus (bell) could trigger a conditioned response (salivation) when paired with an unconditioned stimulus (food).

Operant Learning Theory (Skinner)

Behavior is shaped by its consequences. Positive or negative reinforcement increases the likelihood of behavior, while punishment decreases it. Skinner emphasized the role of rewards and punishments in learning.

Social Learning Theory (Bandura)

Learning occurs by observing and imitating others. Bandura’s Bobo doll experiment demonstrated that children imitate aggressive behavior when they observe it in others, emphasizing the importance of modeling.

Piagetian Theory

Theory that children go through four stages of cognitive development (sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational), learning through active exploration and building schemas to understand the world.

Vygotskian Theory

Vygotsky emphasized the role of social interaction in cognitive development. Learning occurs within the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), where children learn best with the help of a more knowledgeable other (scaffolding)

Ecological Systems Theory (Bronfenbrenner)

Theory that explains how different systems (microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, chronosystem) interact to influence an individual’s development, with a focus on how environment and relationships shape growth.

DNA

The molecule that carries genetic information

Chromosome

Threadlike structures made of DNA that contain the genes

Mitosis

Cell division resulting in two identical cells

Meiosis

Cell division that produces reproductive cells (sperm and egg) with half the usual number of chromosomes

Gamete

A reproductive cell (sperm or egg)

Protein Synthesis

The process by which cells produce proteins based on genetic instructions. DNA is transcribed into RNA, which is then translated into proteins that perform essential functions in the body.

Mitosis vs Meiosis

Mitosis: Cell division that results in two identical cells with the same number of chromosomes (used for growth and repair).

Meiosis: Cell division that produces reproductive cells (sperm and egg) with half the number of chromosomes, ensuring genetic diversity.

Zygote

A fertilized egg

Blastula

An early stage of development in which the embryo is a hollow ball of cells

Gastrula

An early stage of development where the embryo forms layers that will become different tissues

Amniotic Sac and Fluid

The protective sac and fluid surrounding the embryo/fetus

Placenta

The organ that provides nutrients and removes waste for the developing fetus

Umbilical Cord

The cord that connects the fetus to the placenta

Fetus

The developing human from 9 weeks after conception to birth

Neonate

A newborn baby

Organogensis

The formation of organs during development

Neuralation

The process of forming the neural tube, which will develop into the brain and spinal cord

Attachment

The emotional bond between a child and a caregiver

Acoustic Characteristics of Intrauterine Environment

The womb is a noisy environment filled with sounds like the mother’s heartbeat, blood flow, and external voices, which the fetus can hear and respond to, particularly in the third trimester.

Fetal Response to Sound

The fetus begins to respond to sounds around 25-26 weeks, showing preferences for familiar voices, especially the mother’s, and may show changes in movement or heart rate in response to external stimuli.

Newborn Auditory Preferences

Newborns prefer familiar sounds, especially their mother’s voice, as they recognize it from the womb. They also show preferences for human speech and rhythmic pattern

Continuities vs Discontinuities in Prenatal vs Postnatal Environment

Continuities: Some experiences like hearing the mother’s voice and rhythmic patterns continue post-birth.

Discontinuities: Environmental changes, such as exposure to more varied stimuli (light, sound, and interaction with others) after birth.

Newborn Behavioral Capacties

Newborns are born with reflexes (ex. rooting, sucking) and sensory abilities (hearing, seeing) that help them interact with their environment and caregivers, essential for survival and early learning.

States of Arousal

Different levels of consciousness in infants (ex. awake, asleep)

Reflexes

Automatic responses to stimuli present at birth (ex. grasp reflex)

Sensorimotor Period

Piaget’s stage where infants learn through interacting with their environment

Object Permanence

The understanding that objects exist even when not seen

Symbolic Representation

The ability to use symbols (ex. words) to represent objects

Babbling

Repetitive consonant-vowel sounds made by infants as they learn language

Telegraphic Speech

Two-word phrases used by toddlers to express simple ideas

LAD (Language Acquistion Device)

Theoretical brain mechanism proposed by Chomsky to explain how children learn language

LASS (Language Acquisition Support System)

Social environment that helps children learn language

Receptive Language

The ability to understand language

Productive Language

The ability to produce language

Newborn and Early Infancy Sensory Development

Newborns have well-developed senses of touch, taste, and hearing at birth, though vision develops more slowly. By a few months, they can track objects and recognize familiar faces.

Cognitive Development During Piaget’s Sensorimotor Period

Infants learn by interacting with their environment through sensory experiences and motor actions. They develop object permanence and begin to understand cause and effect.

Language Development

Language development starts with cooing and babbling, progressing to single words and simple phrases by the second year. Children develop receptive language (understanding) before productive language (speaking).

Attachment and Strange Situation Paradigm

Ainsworth’s experiment observed how infants reacted to being separated and reunited with their caregiver. Securely attached infants were upset when the caregiver left and comforted upon their return.

Erikson’s Psychosocial Conflict of Infancy

Trust vs. Mistrust: The first stage of Erikson’s theory, where infants learn to trust their caregivers if their needs are met consistently, leading to a sense of security

Plasticity

The brain’s ability to change and adapt

Myelination

The process of forming a fatty sheath around the axons of neurons to speed up communication

Neuron

A nerve cell that transmits information

Synapse

The connection between two neurons

Pruning

The elimination of unused neural connections to strengthen others

Egocentrism

Inability to see things from others perspectives (common in young children)

Conservation

Understanding that properties of objects (ex. volume) stay the same despite changes in form

Irreversibility

Inability to mentally reverse an action or process