chapter dipressive and Bipolar

What is depression?

A low, sad state marked by sadness, low energy, low self-worth, guilt, and related symptoms.

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What is mania?

A state of euphoria or frenzied activity with exaggerated beliefs and high energy.

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What are depressive disorders?

A group of disorders marked by unipolar depression.

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What is unipolar depression?

Depression without a history of mania.

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How common is unipolar depression?

About 8% of U.S. adults have severe forms yearly; ~20% experience it at some point.

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What impact did the COVID-19 pandemic have on depression rates?

It increased depressive disorders by about 25%.

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What are emotional symptoms of depression?

Sadness, emptiness, humiliation, and loss of pleasure.

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What are motivational symptoms of depression?

Lack of drive, initiative, and spontaneity.

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What are cognitive symptoms of depression?

Negative self-view, self-blame, and pessimism.

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What are physical symptoms of depression?

Headaches, dizziness, and general pain.

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What percentage of people with severe depression may die by suicide?

6% to 15%.

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What is a major depressive episode?

A 2-week period of depressed mood or loss of interest plus additional symptoms.

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Name symptoms required during a major depressive episode.

Weight/appetite change, sleep issues, fatigue, guilt, poor concentration, suicidal thoughts.

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What is major depressive disorder (MDD)?

Presence of major depressive episodes without mania.

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What is persistent depressive disorder (PDD)?

Chronic depression lasting at least 2 years.

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How does stress relate to depression?

80% of severe episodes follow major stressful events.

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What is reactive (exogenous) depression?

Depression triggered by external events.

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What is endogenous depression?

Depression caused by internal biological factors.

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What is postpartum (peripartum) depression?

Depression occurring after childbirth with emotional, cognitive, and physical symptoms.

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Causes of postpartum depression?

Hormonal changes, genetics, and psychological/social stress.

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Treatments for postpartum depression?

Therapy, medication, and support groups.

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What neurotransmitters are low in depression?

Serotonin and norepinephrine.

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What role does the HPA axis play in depression?

It regulates stress hormones and can become overactive.

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What brain area is linked to depression?

The subgenual cingulate.

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How does the immune system relate to depression?

Inflammation and immune dysregulation contribute to symptoms.

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What are antidepressant drugs?

Medications that increase neurotransmitter activity to reduce depression.

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What are MAO inhibitors?

Drugs that increase serotonin and norepinephrine levels.

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What are tricyclic antidepressants?

Drugs that block neurotransmitter reuptake.

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What are SSRIs?

Drugs that selectively increase serotonin (e.g., Prozac, Zoloft).

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What do SNRIs do?

Increase both serotonin and norepinephrine.

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What are ketamine-based antidepressants?

Fast-acting drugs that affect glutamate and brain pathways.

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What is electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)?

Brain stimulation using electrical currents to treat severe depression.

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What is transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)?

Noninvasive brain stimulation using magnetic fields.

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What is vagus nerve stimulation?

Electrical stimulation sent through the vagus nerve to the brain.

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What is the cognitive-behavioral model of depression?

Depression is caused by negative thinking and behaviors.

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What is the cognitive triad?

Negative views about oneself, the world, and the future.

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What is learned helplessness?

Belief that one has no control over life outcomes, leading to depression.

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What is attribution-helplessness theory?

People attribute failure to internal, stable, global causes → depression.

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What is behavioral activation?

Increasing engagement in positive activities to improve mood.

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What are phases of cognitive therapy?

Increase activity, challenge thoughts, identify biases, change core beliefs.

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What is acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT)?

Therapy focusing on accepting thoughts rather than eliminating them.

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What is the sociocultural model of depression?

Depression is influenced by social environment and relationships.

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What is interpersonal psychotherapy (IPT)?

Therapy focusing on relationships and social functioning.

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Why are women more likely to have depression?

Due to biological, psychological, and social factors.

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What is the developmental psychopathology view?

Depression results from combined biological, psychological, and social factors over time.

What are bipolar disorders?

Disorders involving alternating periods of depression and mania.

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What are symptoms of mania?

Elevated mood, high energy, impulsivity, rapid thoughts, reduced sleep.

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What is a manic episode?

At least 1 week of elevated or irritable mood with increased activity.

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Symptoms required for a manic episode?

Grandiosity, little sleep, rapid thoughts, distractibility.

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What is cyclothymic disorder?

Milder bipolar disorder lasting 2+ years with mood swings.

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How common is bipolar disorder?

1–2.8% annually; ~4.4% lifetime prevalence.

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When does bipolar disorder usually begin?

Between ages 15 and 44.

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What neurotransmitter imbalance is linked to mania?

High norepinephrine and low serotonin.

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What is the role of ion activity in bipolar disorder?

Improper ion transport affects neuron functioning.

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What brain structures are linked to bipolar disorder?

Basal ganglia and cerebellum.

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What role do genetics play in bipolar disorder?

Strong inherited predisposition.

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What is lithium used for?

Mood stabilization in bipolar disorder.

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Other mood stabilizers?

Lamotrigine, carbamazepine, valproate.

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What are antipsychotic drugs used for in bipolar disorder?

Treating mania and mood stabilization.

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What is adjunctive psychotherapy?

Therapy combined with medication to improve outcomes.

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Benefits of adjunctive psychotherapy?

Better medication adherence, fewer hospitalizations, improved functioning