APUSH P8 + P9

President Harry Truman (1945-1952)

The 33rd president of the United States, who served from 1945 to 1953, overseeing the conclusion of World War II, the beginning of the Cold War, and implementing major postwar domestic policies.

GI Bill (1945)

A law that provided benefits to World War II veterans, including financial aid for higher education, loans for homes, and unemployment compensation, helping to expand the middle class and fuel postwar economic growth.

President Dwight Eisenhower (1953-1961)

The 34th president of the United States, Eisenhower's presidency was marked by Cold War diplomacy, the establishment of the Interstate Highway System, and civil rights struggles.

Domino Theory (1954)

The idea that if one country fell to communism, neighboring countries would follow suit like a row of falling dominoes, justifying U.S. intervention in foreign conflicts such as Vietnam.

Iron Curtain (1946)

A term coined by Winston Churchill to describe the ideological and physical boundary separating Eastern Europe, controlled by the Soviet Union, from Western Europe during the Cold War.

Geneva Conference (1954)

A meeting aimed at resolving the First Indochina War, resulting in the division of Vietnam at the 17th parallel, setting the stage for the Vietnam War.

Kennan’s Containment Speech (1946)

A speech by George Kennan outlining the policy of containment, which aimed to prevent the spread of communism by supporting nations resisting Soviet influence.

SEATO (1954)

The Southeast Asia Treaty Organization, a defense alliance formed to prevent the spread of communism in Southeast Asia, modeled after NATO but ultimately ineffective.

Employment Act of 1946

Legislation aimed at promoting full employment, production, and purchasing power, establishing the Council of Economic Advisers to assist the president with economic policy.

Brown v. Board of Education (1954)

Landmark Supreme Court case that declared racial segregation in public schools unconstitutional, reversing the Plessy v. Ferguson decision and advancing the Civil Rights Movement.

Levittown (1947)

A series of mass-produced suburban communities created by William Levitt, providing affordable housing but also reinforcing racial segregation through discriminatory practices.

Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955)

A political and social protest in Montgomery, Alabama, led by African Americans after Rosa Parks was arrested for refusing to give up her seat on a segregated bus, resulting in the desegregation of the city’s buses.

Taft-Hartley Act (1947)

A law that restricted the power of labor unions, limiting the ability to strike, requiring union leaders to swear they were not communists, and allowing states to pass right-to-work laws.

Little Rock Nine (1956)

A group of nine African American students who integrated Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas, with federal protection after the governor attempted to block their entry.

National Security Act (1947)

Legislation that reorganized the U.S. military and intelligence agencies, creating the Department of Defense, the CIA, and the National Security Council.

Suez Crisis (1956)

A diplomatic and military conflict in which Egypt’s nationalization of the Suez Canal led to military intervention by the U.K., France, and Israel, while the U.S. pressured for a ceasefire, asserting its influence in the Middle East.

Truman Doctrine (1947)

A U.S. foreign policy initiative designed to contain communism by providing military and economic support to countries resisting Soviet influence, particularly in Greece and Turkey.

Interstate Highway Act (1956)

Legislation that authorized the construction of a national system of highways, transforming the U.S. economy by facilitating transportation and suburban growth.

McCarran Internal Security Act (1950)

A law that required Communist organizations to register with the U.S. government, giving the federal government power to arrest suspected communists and prevent subversive activities.

Civil Rights Act (1957)

The first major civil rights legislation since Reconstruction, designed to protect voting rights for African Americans and create a civil rights division in the Justice Department.

HUAC (House Un-American Activities Committee)

A congressional committee responsible for investigating suspected communist influences in American society, particularly in Hollywood and labor unions.

SCLC (Southern Christian Leadership Conference, 1957)

A civil rights organization founded by Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. and others to coordinate nonviolent protests and lead campaigns against segregation and racial injustice.

Executive Order 9981 (1948)

An order issued by President Truman that desegregated the U.S. military, making a significant step toward racial equality in federal institutions.

Eisenhower Doctrine (1957)

A U.S. policy that promised military or economic aid to Middle Eastern countries resisting communist influence, emphasizing Cold War geopolitics.

Marshall Plan (1948)

A U.S. economic aid program that provided financial assistance to Western European countries to rebuild after World War II and prevent the spread of communism.

Sputnik (1957)

The first artificial satellite launched by the Soviet Union, which initiated the Space Race and led to the creation of NASA and increased funding for science and technology education in the U.S.

Berlin Airlift (1948-1949)

A U.S. operation that supplied West Berlin with food and fuel by air after the Soviet Union blockaded the city, marking a key Cold War conflict.

National Defense Education Act (1958)

A law aimed at improving U.S. education in science, mathematics, and foreign languages to enhance national security and compete with the Soviet Union during the Cold War.

Fair Deal (1949)

President Truman’s domestic policy program, which sought to expand New Deal reforms, improve education and healthcare, and raise the minimum wage, but faced resistance in Congress.

NASA (1958)

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration, established to lead U.S. space exploration efforts, particularly in response to the Soviet Union’s early space achievements.

McCarthyism

The practice of making accusations of subversion or treason without proper evidence, especially during the Second Red Scare, largely driven by Senator Joseph McCarthy.

Civil Rights Act of 1960

Legislation designed to provide federal oversight of local elections to prevent racial discrimination in voting.

Korean War (1950-1953)

A conflict between North and South Korea, in which the U.S. intervened on behalf of South Korea to prevent the spread of communism, resulting in a stalemate and the division of Korea.

22nd Amendment (1951)

An amendment to the U.S. Constitution that limited presidents to two terms in office.

OPEC (1960)

The Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries, a coalition of oil-producing nations aimed at regulating oil production and prices.

President John F. Kennedy (1961-1963)

The 35th president of the U.S., whose presidency included the Cuban Missile Crisis, the Space Race, the Civil Rights Movement, and his tragic assassination in 1963.

Kennedy/Nixon Debates (1960s)

The televised debates between presidential candidates John F. Kennedy and Richard Nixon, which helped to popularize the importance of television in political campaigns.

Military-Industrial Complex (1961)

A term coined by President Eisenhower to describe the close relationship between the military, defense contractors, and the government.

New Frontier (1960)

A set of domestic and foreign policy proposals introduced by President John F. Kennedy, focusing on social reforms, civil rights, and space exploration.

Beatniks/Beat Generation

A group of writers and artists in the 1950s who rejected traditional societal norms, embraced alternative lifestyles, and influenced the counterculture of the 1960s.

Bay of Pigs Invasion (1961)

A failed U.S. invasion of Cuba, aiming to overthrow Fidel Castro, that ended in embarrassment and increased Cold War tensions.

President Lyndon B. Johnson (1963-1968)

The 36th president of the U.S., whose presidency focused on civil rights, social welfare programs, and escalating involvement in the Vietnam War.

War on Poverty (1964)

A set of government initiatives introduced by President Lyndon B. Johnson aimed at reducing poverty through education, healthcare, and economic reforms.

Berlin Wall (1961)

A barrier built by East Germany to prevent East Berliners from fleeing to the West, becoming a symbol of the Cold War and the division of Europe.

Great Society (1964)

A set of domestic programs launched by President Lyndon B. Johnson to eliminate poverty and racial injustice, including Medicare, Medicaid, and civil rights laws.

Mapp v. Ohio (1961)

A Supreme Court case that ruled evidence obtained through illegal searches and seizures could not be used in court, reinforcing Fourth Amendment protections.

Medicare (1965)

A federal program providing healthcare coverage to elderly Americans, part of Johnson's Great Society reforms.

Medicaid (1965)

A federal program providing healthcare coverage to low-income individuals and families, created as part of Johnson's Great Society initiatives.

Baker v. Carr (1962)

A Supreme Court case that ruled federal courts could intervene in state redistricting issues, ensuring equal representation in voting districts.

Civil Rights Act of 1964

Landmark legislation that prohibited discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin, significantly advancing civil rights in America.

Engel v. Vitale (1962)

A Supreme Court case that ruled it unconstitutional for public schools to require prayer, affirming the separation of church and state.

24th Amendment (1964)

An amendment to the U.S. Constitution that banned the use of poll taxes in federal elections, removing a barrier to voting for many African Americans.

Letter from a Birmingham Jail (1963)

A letter written by Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. in which he defends nonviolent protest and calls for direct action to end segregation and racial injustice.

Gulf of Tonkin Resolution (1964)

A congressional resolution that granted President Johnson the authority to use military force in Vietnam without a formal declaration of war.

March on Washington (1963)

A massive civil rights demonstration in Washington, D.C., where Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. delivered his famous "I Have a Dream" speech.

HUD (1965)

The Department of Housing and Urban Development, created as part of Johnson’s Great Society to address urban housing issues and promote economic development in cities.

Gideon v. Wainwright (1963)

A Supreme Court case that ruled that all criminal defendants have the right to legal counsel, even if they cannot afford an attorney.

March to Montgomery (1965)

A series of marches organized by civil rights activists to demand voting rights for African Americans, culminating in the passage of the Voting Rights Act.

The Feminine Mystique (1963)

A book by Betty Friedan that criticized the limited roles of women in society and helped spark the modern feminist movement.

Equal Pay Act of 1963

A law that mandated equal pay for equal work, aiming to reduce gender wage disparities.

Watts Riots (1965)

A violent uprising in the Watts neighborhood of Los Angeles, sparked by racial tensions and police brutality, symbolizing frustrations with systemic racism.

President Richard Nixon (1969-1974)

The 37th president of the U.S., known for his foreign policy achievements, including détente with the Soviet Union, as well as the Watergate scandal that led to his resignation.

Vietnamization

A U.S. policy aimed at ending American involvement in the Vietnam War by transferring combat roles to the South Vietnamese forces.

Kerner Commission (1968)

A commission established to investigate the causes of race riots in the 1960s, which concluded that racial segregation and poverty were major contributors to the unrest.

SALT I (1969)

The Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty between the U.S. and Soviet Union, which aimed to limit the number of nuclear weapons each country possessed.

Black Panthers (1966)

A revolutionary black nationalist group that advocated for self-defense, black power, and the defense of African American communities against police brutality.

Pentagon Papers (1970)

A secret government report on the U.S. political and military involvement in Vietnam, leaked to the press, revealing government deception and mismanagement

Miranda v. Arizona (1966)

A Supreme Court case that established the requirement for police to inform suspects of their rights, including the right to remain silent and the right to an attorney.

Kent State (1970)

A violent confrontation between National Guard troops and student protesters at Kent State University, resulting in four student deaths and increasing anti-war sentiment.

National Organization for Women (1966)

A feminist organization founded to advocate for women's rights, including workplace equality, reproductive rights, and an end to gender-based discrimination.

Nixon in China (1972)

A groundbreaking visit by President Nixon to China, which opened diplomatic relations between the two countries and marked a shift in the Cold War.

Assassination of MLK (1968)

The tragic killing of civil rights leader Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., which sparked national mourning and further civil rights activism.

Tet Offensive (1968)

A series of surprise attacks by North Vietnamese and Viet Cong forces during the Vietnamese New Year, shifting American public opinion and signaling the war's unlikeliness to be quickly won.

My Lai Massacre (1968)

The killing of hundreds of Vietnamese civilians by U.S. soldiers during the Vietnam War, a major event that fueled anti-war protests and raised ethical concerns about the war.

Counterculture of the 1960s

A social movement characterized by the rejection of traditional values, embracing alternative lifestyles, drug use, and progressive ideas, often associated with the hippie movement.

Roe v. Wade (1973)

A landmark Supreme Court case that legalized abortion in the U.S., recognizing a woman's constitutional right to choose an abortion.

President Gerald Ford (1974-1976)

The 38th president of the U.S., who assumed office after Nixon’s resignation. His presidency focused on healing the nation post-Watergate and dealing with economic challenges.

Fall of Saigon (1975)

The capture of Saigon by North Vietnamese forces, marking the end of the Vietnam War and the reunification of Vietnam under communist rule.

Gideon v. Wainwright (1973)

A Supreme Court case that established the right of defendants to have a lawyer appointed by the state if they cannot afford one, ensuring due process under the Sixth Amendment.

Cambodian Genocide (1975)

The mass killing of an estimated 2 million people in Cambodia by the Khmer Rouge regime under Pol Pot, occurring during the Cambodian Civil War.

Nixon’s Resignation (1974)

President Richard Nixon resigned from office after the Watergate scandal, becoming the first U.S. president to step down due to political pressure.

President Jimmy Carter (1976-1980)

The 39th president of the U.S., whose presidency focused on human rights, energy conservation, and the Camp David Accords, but was also marked by economic struggles and the Iran Hostage Crisis.

Panama Canal (1978)

The signing of the Panama Canal Treaty, which agreed to transfer control of the Panama Canal from the U.S. to Panama by the end of 1999, marking a shift in U.S. foreign policy toward Latin America.

Equal Rights Amendment (ERA)

A proposed amendment to the U.S. Constitution that sought to guarantee equal rights under the law, regardless of sex, but was never ratified.

Camp David Accords (1978)

A peace agreement brokered by President Carter between Egypt and Israel, resulting in Egypt recognizing Israel and Israel withdrawing from the Sinai Peninsula.

War Powers Act (1973)

A law that limited the president’s ability to engage in military conflict without Congressional approval, aiming to check executive power after the Vietnam War.

Iran Hostage Crisis (1979-1981)

A diplomatic crisis in which 52 American diplomats and citizens were held hostage by Iranian militants for 444 days, greatly affecting Carter’s presidency and foreign policy.

OPEC Oil Embargo (1973)

An embargo imposed by OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries) that led to fuel shortages and economic stagnation in the U.S., illustrating the country’s dependency on foreign oil.

SALT II (1979)

A treaty between the U.S. and the Soviet Union aimed at limiting nuclear weapons, though it was never ratified due to the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan.

President Ronald Reagan (1980-1988)

The 40th president of the U.S., known for conservative economic policies, the end of the Cold War, and strong anti-communism rhetoric, as well as tax cuts and military buildup.

Proposition 13 (1978)

A California referendum that drastically reduced property taxes in the state, limiting local governments' ability to raise revenue and influencing national tax policy.

Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan (1979)

A military intervention by the Soviet Union to support the communist government of Afghanistan, which led to U.S. support for Afghan resistance fighters and increased Cold War tensions.

Regents v. Bakke (1978)

A Supreme Court case that upheld affirmative action but ruled that racial quotas in college admissions were unconstitutional.

Creation of Department of Energy (1979)

The establishment of a federal agency tasked with overseeing U.S. energy production and consumption, and advancing energy independence during the 1970s energy crisis.

Moral Majority (1980)

A political organization founded by Jerry Falwell to mobilize conservative Christians in support of political candidates and policies aligned with religious values.

Creation of Department of Education (1979)

The establishment of a federal agency dedicated to education policy, aiming to improve U.S. schools, particularly in terms of accessibility and standards.

First Personal Computer (1981)

The release of the first personal computers for mass market use, marking the beginning of the digital revolution and the rise of Silicon Valley.

President George H.W. Bush (1989-1993)

The 41st president of the U.S., whose presidency was marked by the end of the Cold War, the Gulf War, and the collapse of the Soviet Union.

Fall of the Berlin Wall (1989)

The dismantling of the Berlin Wall, symbolizing the end of the Cold War and the reunification of East and West Germany.

Reaganomics

The economic policies promoted by President Reagan, emphasizing tax cuts, deregulation, and a free-market approach to stimulate economic growth.