Psychology Exam 3 Dr. Gitter

How do we define personality?

characteristic patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors

What do we mean by long-lasting?

Stays consistent over time

What do we mean by organized?

Structured and patterned

What do we mean by dynamic and adaptive?

Can change in response to experiences

What do we mean by psychophysical?

Arises from biological and mental processes

How did Freud explain personality?

Personality is shaped by unconscious forces and childhood experiences

• he believed mental health was variations in personality

Id motives

Primitive desires (pleasure principle)

Ex of Id

• someone who would commit murder w/o regards to life and the law

• devil in my name is bruce who’s advocating for selfishness

Ego motives

Mediates between Id and superego (reality principle) by still getting what it wants but not by breaking moral code

Ex of Ego

• main character in my name is bruce trying to find compromise btwn angel (superego) and devil (id)

SuperEgo motives

High Moral standards/ strives for perfection based on societal expectations

ex of Superego

• angel in my name is bruce

  • advocates for the good of the world ie societal expectations

How do the Id, Ego, and SuperEgo work together to influence our outward behavior?

Id drives desires, Ego balances them with reality, SuperEgo imposes morality.

What are the different defense mechanisms?

Repression

Reaction Formation

Rationalization

Displacement

Repression

Keeping distressing thoughts unconsious

ex of Repression

• burying feelings from a truamatic experience like abuse

Reaction Formation

acting opposite of your urge b/c ur uncomfortable

ex of reaction formation

• being excessively nice to someone even though you have the urge to harm them

Rationalization

Justifying behaviors w/ more acceptable reasoning- externalizing

ex of Rationalization

• if you litter and you normally don’t, you would say there should be more trash cans or you blame the city

Displacement

Redirecting emotions to a safer target

ex of Displacement

• kick the dog phenomenon

• abusing a weaker (“safe”) target

• child/animal abuse

What are the criticisms of the psychoanalytic perspective?

• lack of scientific support

• Difficult to test empirically

• take w/grain of salt

• takes idiographic approach

What is the person-centered approach?

• Developed by Carl Rogers

• focuses on self-growth and fulfillment due to positive perspective on human morality

What is self-actualization?

Realizing one’s full potential and achieving ideals

what’s self transcendence

point where you’ve achieved all your needs and are finding your purpose in life

What is unconditional positive regard?

offering support to someone so they can achieve their best selves w/o wanting anything in return

Difference btwn un/conditional positive regard

• conditional- supporting someone but wanting something in return ie to control them

• conditional positive regard is abt controlling someone to your expectations vs unconditional positive regard is supporting someone w/o imposing your expectations on them

Needs

• Physiological- basic needs ie food water warmth and rest

• safety- basic needs ie housing security and safety

• belonging & love needs- relationships and friends

• esteem needs- achievements and prestige

• self-actualization needs- full potential

Heirarchy of Needs (lowest level to highest)

• Physiological needs (basic level)- Physiological & safety

• Psychological needs (after basic)- esteem & belonging and love

• Implicit/social needs (after all needs are achieved now a want)- self actualization

after achieving all of your basic needs (everyone has these in common) it starts to get more specific as it goes higher

What are the criticisms of the humanistic perspective?

• more philosophical than scientific

• Vague but testable concepts

• difficult to test if ppl are fundamentally good w/o society

• takes idiographic approach

What is the difference between idiographic and nomothetic approaches?

• Idiographic focuses on individual uniqueness (e.g., case studies).

• Nomothetic focuses on generalizing traits across people (e.g., Big Five).

Which personality theories fit under idiographic and nomothetic approaches?

Idiographic - Humanistic(like Carl Rogers’ Person-Centered Approach) & Psychoanalytic Theories

Nomothetic - Trait theories (like the Big Five) and some psychoanalytic approaches

What is a trait?

A stable characteristic that influences behavior

What do we mean when we say traits exist along a continuum? 

Traits exist on a normal distribution (low to average to high & ppl often average), and persist over time ie years/lifetimes
- ie introverts and extroverts ppl are avg/in btwn them

What are the Big Five personality traits? What does it mean to be high/low on each trait?

Openness: High = imaginative, Low = practical

Conscientiousness: High = organized, Low = careless

Extraversion: High = sociable, Low = introverted/ reserved

Agreeableness: High = cooperative, Low = antagonistic/ruthless

Neuroticism: High = anxious/insecure , Low = secure/calm

What are the criticisms of trait theory?

• Doesn’t account for culture

  • big 5 was formed for more western white US culture & college students

• Underestimates the influence of situational factors

• ppl might lie on tests for this due to social desirable responding

• no assessment is free of bias

• better for self-assessment bc we know ourselves better than anyone

• personality isn’t consistent enough to predict behavior ie introvert sometimes comes out of their shell

What are person X situation approaches?

Behavior results from an interaction between traits (personality) and environment (surroundings) ie multiple factors influence behavior

What is the difference between a strong and weak person X situation?

Strong Situation: Clear rules (e.g., a classroom/church) control behavior that have consequences if u break them

Weak Situation: still have rules but less strict so if u break them consequences are not as severe but there’s always rule (e.g., if at a party & sat in a corner studying u would be ostracized but beyond that you have flexibility in how u behave ie being quiet/boisterous)

How will weak vs strong situations affect the predictive relationship between personality and behavior?

weak situation: personality a better predictor of behavior
— when alone no rules so personality is when we can be truly our selves
strong situation: personality gets stamped down & no individual differentiation so personality less predictive of behavior
— when at church or school, everyone acts like a standard case/the same

Distinguish between the different personality theories (Psychoanalytic, humanistic, trait theory).

Psychoanalytic: Focuses on unconscious processes and that id, superego, and ego influence personality (Freud).

Humanistic: Focuses on self-growth and potential (Rogers).

Trait Theory: Describes personality through stable traits (Big Five).

ex of psychoanalytic theory

• someone on a diet sees a delicious chocolate cake in the fridge

  • Id (selfish instincts): eat the cake forget the diet

  • Superego (morality): No u made a promise to yourself. Eating that cake is wrong

  • Ego (reality): Maybe I can have a small slice now and eat healthier/workout tomorrow to balance it out

ex of humanistic theory

Alex- a college student- feels unfulfilled despite getting good grades. He starts seeing a counselor who encourages him to explore his passions, values, and goals—not just his academic performance. Over time, Alex decides to pursue art, something he’s always loved, even though it’s not what others expect from him. He feels more authentic and happier.
- Focus is on personal growth, self-awareness, and authenticity

• Emphasis on free will and becoming the best version of oneself

• Reflects Carl Rogers’ idea of unconditional positive regard and Maslow’s concept of self-actualization

ex of Trait Theory

Emma is known for being organized, reliable, and always on time. Her friends often describe her as dependable and hardworking. She also tends to plan things out carefully and keeps a detailed calendar. When she takes a personality test, she scores high in conscientiousness on the Big Five personality traits.
- Focus is on consistent, measurable characteristics of personality

• Uses Big Five (OCEAN):

  • Openness

  • Conscientiousness

  • Extraversion

  • Agreeableness

  • Neuroticism

• Assumes these traits are stable over time and across situations

What is the difference between nonassociative, associative, and observational learning?

Nonassociative learning is a change in response to a repeated stimulus; associative learning involves forming a connection between stimuli or events, like in classical or operant conditioning; and observational learning occurs by watching and imitating others.

What are the differences between habituation, sensitization, and dishabituation?

Habituation is when response gets less and less to a repeated, harmless stimulus; sensitization is an increased response to a repeated, usually intense or harmful stimulus; and dishabituation is the return of a response to a previously habituated stimulus when a new stimulus is introduced.

Also distinguish between habituation and sensory adaptaton

Habituation is a learning process where response lessens/less pronounced to a repeated stimulus, while sensory adaptation is you are becoming less able to detect (sense) or be aware of (perceive) a constant and unchanging stimulus. Habituation is a psychological change; sensory adaptation is a sensory system change.

What is the difference between modeling and vicarious reinforcement?

Modeling is learning by observing and imitating others' behaviors, while vicarious reinforcement involves observing someone else's behavior being rewarded or punished, which influences the observer’s likelihood of repeating that behavior in order to receive/avoid award/punishment.

procedure for producing a classically conditioned association?

Pair a neutral stimulus (NS) with an unconditioned stimulus (US) that naturally elicits an unconditioned response (UR). After repeated pairings, the NS becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) that elicits a conditioned response (CR) similar to the UR. so NS=CS and UR=CR

What happens during the acquisition phase in classical conditioning?

In acquisition, the neutral stimulus (NS) is repeatedly paired with the unconditioned stimulus (US), so the NS becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) that elicits a conditioned response (CR).- the NS learns the association

What happens during the extinction phase in classical conditioning?

In extinction, the conditioned stimulus (CS) is presented without the unconditioned stimulus (US), leading the conditioned response (CR) to gradually weaken and eventually stop.

What is spontaneous recovery in classical conditioning?

Spontaneous recovery is the reappearance of the conditioned response (CR) after a rest period following extinction, without further CS-US pairings.

What is a stimulus vs. a response?

A stimulus is any event or object in the environment that elicits a reaction, while a response is the behavior or reaction elicited by the stimulus.

What is the difference between something that is conditioned vs. unconditioned?

Unconditioned means naturally occurring without prior learning (e.g., unconditioned stimulus and response ie dog’s salivating when it sees food), while conditioned means learned through association (e.g., conditioned stimulus and response ie dog salivating w/bell).

ex of classical conditioning- u stopped here

• Pavlov’s dogs-

  • UCS- food- at baseline

  • UR- salivation- naturally

  • NS- bell- ie no reaction at baseline

  • CS- bell- after acquisition phase (multiple trials w/NS & UCS)

  • CR- salivation
    NS→CS→ CR
    UCS→ UR
    

What has an organism learned when they've been classically conditioned, and what evidence supports that the association has been learned?

The organism learns to associate a NS with an UCS, leading to a CR. Evidence of this learning includes the presence of the conditioned response (CR), generalization to similar stimuli, discrimination between the conditioned stimulus and others, extinction of the response when the CS is presented without the US, and spontaneous recovery after a period of rest.- CS predicts US

Contiguity

The closer in time and space the neutral stimulus (NS) and unconditioned stimulus (US) are presented, the more likely an association will be formed.
- ex: Pavlov after ringing the bell immediately gave the food

Contingency

A reliable correlation between the NS and US increases the likelihood of conditioning; the NS must consistently predict the US.
- ex: in pavlov’s dogs- 100% contigency- everytime bell was rung, there was food ie perfectly correlated so easy to learn

Stimulus Value

The significance or appeal of the US affects conditioning; ie how much the learner cares abt the stimuli and stronger/more desirable stimuli lead to easier conditioning

- ex- Dr. G’s dog Dennis loves food so anything that happened around dinnertime he thought predicted food so he was always on the lookout, so if someone would sing a song around dinnertime continuously he would get excited bc he knew song=food or if they walked near door where food was stored he would get excited bc they would always walk thru the door to get him food ie it was easier to condition him around dinnertime w/whistling bc he know it means food and he loves it

Novelty of stimulus

New or unfamiliar stimuli are more likely to be noticed and associated then familiar ones, ie enhancing conditioning- characteristics of neutral stimulus= novelty of stimulus meaning do we have prior learning associated w/stimulus or not
- ex- Pavlov’s dogs know bell ringing=food so if u tried training them to go use the bathroom outside it wouldn’t work bc they only associate the bell ring w/food but maybe if you rang the bell more than once it would help them associate it w/outside but it would take sometime but if u tried clapping and taking them outside, they would associate it quicker

Biological Preparedness

things that are easier to learn than others bc we're biologically prepared for them- they provide some innate benefits- strategic adaptation that has developed thru evolutionary history
-- basic idea is that these things are so important to learn that we can throw rules out
— ex- taste aversion- easy for us to learn that food can make us sick ie if u have bad experience where u eat some food and get sick- likely just that one time/trial but u develop a conditioned taste ie an aversion to it, and be disgusted by appearance, aroma, and taste of that food for an extended pd of time

How do contiguity, contingency, stimulus value, novelty, and biological preparedness influence the ease of conditioning?

short contiguity=strong contigency=Unconditioned Stimulus w/High stimulus value= NS that is a Novel Stimulus, then conditioning will be easy so fewer trials but conditioning can be harder if there needs to be more trials bc all of these things affect the expectation that develops and the predictive relationship that develops btwn NS and US but they'll learn the association

Stimulus Generalization

This occurs when an organism responds similarly to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus (CS), indicating that the learned response generalizes to other stimuli.

Stimulus Discrimination

This is the ability of an organism to distinguish between the conditioned stimulus (CS) and other similar stimuli, responding only to the CS and not to others.

Operant Conditioning

A learning process where behavior is modified by its consequences (reinforcements or punishments)- learning that behavior has consequences- we do something so the world responds either good or bad

Basic Operant Conditioning Paradigm Procedure

An organism performs a behavior (response) that is followed by a consequence (reinforcement or punishment), which affects the likelihood of the behavior being repeated- ways that they could use consequences to influence behavior

ex of BOCPP

Algernon has behavioral language- some sedentary behavior ie doing nothing and sitting around (sleeping)- all natural behaviors
--want to change his behavior- make him do more of what he doesn't do ie pressing levers
--at baseline- behavior is infrequent and he doesn't press levers at a high rate but does it occasionally when he sniffs around the room and investigates but not inc bc no consequences yet
--step 1 of operant paradigm- wait for behavior to occur- naturally
--step 2: the behaviors happens naturally as part of gen interaction w/world- Algernon eventually places his weight on the lever
--step 3: immediately-short contiguity- we provide a consequence of our choice- how our learner feels abt the consequence will influence the process- Algernon pressed the lever so sugar water is dispensed and he drinks it and loves it
--step 4: repeat steps 1-3- algernon probs hasn't picked it up yet bc only 1 contigency has occurred
---after he figures out his actions produce this consequences he is going to try to produce it as much as possible, altering his behavior and an inc of the frequency of this behavior and becomes a greater proportion of his behavior repertoire

How does Operant Conditioning differ from Classical Conditioning

Operant Conditioning involves learning through consequences of behavior (active response ie rat pressing lever to get more sugar water), while classical conditioning involves learning through the association between stimuli (passive response thru natural tendency ie dog salivating w/food).

What is the Law of Effect?

The Law of Effect, proposed by Edward Thorndike, states that responses followed by satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated, while responses followed by unpleasant consequences are less likely to be repeated. This principle underlies the process of operant conditioning.

Reinforcement

A consequence that increases the likelihood of a behavior being repeated, it can be positive (adding a pleasant stimulus) or negative (removing an unpleasant stimulus)

Punishment

A consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behavior being repeated; it can also be positive (adding an unpleasant stimulus) or negative (removing a pleasant stimulus)

Given an example of Operant Conditioning, be able to identify whether it is a case of Positive Reinforcement, Negative Reinforcement, Positive Punishment, or Negative Punishment.

Scenario:
Jamie cleans her room, and her parents give her $10.

Step-by-step Breakdown:

1. Behavior: Cleaning her room

2. Consequence: She receives something good ($10)

3. Effect: She's more likely to clean her room again in the future

✅ This is: Positive Reinforcement
Why? Because a reward is added (positive) to increase the behavior (reinforcement).

shaping

A technique in operant conditioning that is a successive reinforcement of the desired behavior, gradually guiding the organism toward the target behavior through a series of small steps.

Shaping vs BOCP

Shaping is a technique within operant conditioning, but it’s used to teach complex behaviors in small steps, while the basic operant conditioning paradigm focuses on reinforcing/punishing existing behaviors based on direct consequences.

Extinction in Operant Conditioning vs Classical

OC- Occurs when a previously reinforced behavior is no longer followed by a reinforcing consequence, leading to a decrease in that behavior over time.
— example, if a rat stops receiving food after pressing a lever, it will eventually stop pressing the lever.
CC- extinction occurs when a conditioned stimulus (CS/NS) is no longer paired with the unconditioned stimulus (US), causing the conditioned response (CR) to decrease or stop over time.
- ex- bell ringing w/no food continuously will cause dogs to salivate less as time goes on bc although bell=food the longer food is not given the less the CR will happen

Fixed-Ratio Schedule

Reinforcement is given after a set number of responses (e.g., a reward after every 10 responses like a free coffee after buying 10 coffees).

Variable-Ratio Schedule

Reinforcement is given after an unpredictable number of responses, (e.g., gamblers ie how even though no wins after playing so many rounds, get a match but it’s a high amt of money so u play again to see if u can win a higher amt but u end up losing it all 🙃)

Fixed-Interval Schedule

Reinforcement is given after a fixed amount of time has passed since the last reinforcement (e.g., a reward every 5 minutes).

Variable-Interval Schedule

Reinforcement is given after varying amounts of time have passed (e.g., a reward after 2 minutes, then after 10 minutes, then after 1 minute).

Continuous Reinforcement

A reinforcement schedule in which a behavior is reinforced every time it occurs, leading to rapid learning of the behavior but also quicker extinction when reinforcement stops.

Intermittent Reinforcement

A reinforcement schedule in which a behavior is reinforced only some of the time, resulting in slower learning but greater resistance to extinction, as the organism continues to respond despite occasional reinforcement.

Difference btwn CRF & IRF

CRF- behavior reinforced every time performed
IRF- behavior reinforced only some of the times (ie on a schedule) its performed

Why does intermittent reinforcement lead to longer-lasting associations than continuous reinforcement?

Intermittent reinforcement creates a sense of unpredictability regarding when a reward will occur, which encourages persistence in the behavior despite the absence of immediate reinforcement. This unpredictability enhances the value of the reinforcement and strengthens the association, making the behavior more resistant to extinction. In contrast, continuous reinforcement leads to quicker learning but can result in rapid extinction once when reinforcement stops, as the behavior is only maintained through consistent rewards so dog will only do tricks if u immediately give treats but once u don’t it won’t want to do tricks.

What are the drawbacks of using punishment to influence behavior?

• Ineffective Learning: Punishment does not teach the desired behavior; it may suppress behavior temporarily without addressing underlying issues.

• Fear and Anxiety: It can create fear or anxiety in the individual, potentially leading to avoidance behavior or aggression.

• Negative Association: Punishment may lead to a negative association with the punisher, damaging relationships and trust.

• Increased Aggression: It can model aggressive behavior, encouraging the individual to respond with aggression themselves.

• Conditioned Responses: The individual may become conditioned to avoid the punisher rather than change their behavior, leading to non-compliance or deceit.

What is the James-Lange theory of emotion?

This theory suggests that arousal precedes emotions- u experience a bodily response before u experience the emotion but this response tells ur brain what the emotion is
— ex- Stimulus: You see a bear.

• Bodily Response: Your heart races, you start sweating, and your muscles tense up.

• Emotion: Based on these physical changes, your brain identifies the feeling as fear

What is the Cannon-Bard theory of emotion?

This theory believes that emotions and physiological (arousal) responses occur simultaneously and independently. This means that experiencing an emotion (like fear) and the physiological reaction (like heart rate increase) happen at the same time, not one after the other.

What is the Schachter-Singer (Two-Factor) theory of emotion?

This theory argues that emotion is the result of both physiological arousal and a cognitive label but it takes environment into account ie emotion= arousal + label (after interpreting situation). According to this theory, we interpret our bodily reactions in context to identify our emotional experience.
— ex: You’re walking alone at night and hear footsteps behind you.

1. Your heart starts racing (arousal).

2. You look around and see you're alone in a dark alley (cognitive label).

3. You interpret the situation and think, “I must be in danger” → You feel fear (emotion).

How do the James-Lange, Cannon-Bard, and Schachter-Singer theories differ in their predictions about identifying and labeling emotions?

• James-Lange: a serial process where emotion is the result of interpreting bodily arousal ie Stimulus (seeing a bear) → Physiological Arousal (increased HR) → Emotion (fear); prediction is that there’s a code for emotions but w/no arousal no emotion

• Cannon-Bard: Emotion and bodily arousal happen at the same time- parallel independent process ie stimulus (seeing a bear)→ Brain (Thalamus) → Simultaneous Arousal & Emotion (HR inc & fear)

• Schachter-Singer: Emotion identification depends on both arousal and situational context, requiring cognitive appraisal to label the emotion ie Stimulus (see bear) → Physiological Arousal (HR inc) → Cognitive Interpretation (u think ur in danger) → Emotion (fear)

What do the James-Lange, Cannon-Bard, and Schachter-Singer theories say about the role of cognition in the experience of emotion?

• James-Lange: Minimal/no role for cognition; emotions are based directly on physiological responses.

• Cannon-Bard: limited Cognition, as emotional and bodily responses occur simultaneously but emotion driven by brain processing

• Schachter-Singer: Cognition plays a crucial role; arousal alone is not enough, and the context is needed to cognitively label the emotion.

What are the universal emotions, according to Paul Ekman?

According to Ekman, the universal emotions are happiness, sadness, fear, anger, surprise, and disgust. These emotions are thought to be recognized across different cultures.

What evidence did Ekman present to support the universality of emotions?

Ekman presented cross-cultural studies showing that people from various cultures, including isolated communities, could reliably recognize facial expressions associated with basic emotions, supporting the idea that these emotions are universal- he showed photos of these universal emotions to ppl from diff cultures and they all repeated the same facial expression such as smiling and frowning

What does modern research say about the universality of emotions?

Modern research generally supports Ekman's idea of basic universal emotions but suggests that context and cultural differences can influence how emotions are expressed and interpreted ie some will say fear is surprise but they all agree abt happiness. Some studies argue for additional or slightly different universal emotions beyond Ekman's original list.

What cultural differences exist in the expression and interpretation of emotions?

Cultures differ in display rules—social norms that dictate how and when emotions should be expressed. For example, some cultures like in Korea may encourage emotional restraint and calmness, while others like the US encourage more expressive displays.

What gender differences exist in the expression of emotions? Are men really less emotional than women?

Gender differences often stem from socialization; women may be more likely to express emotions openly, while men may suppress certain emotions due to social expectations. Women are also more likely to express empathy. However, research shows that men are not necessarily less emotional but may display emotions differently or less openly than women.

What role do emotions play in decision making?

Affect as information hypothesis- emotion and thought interfere w/each other ie rational/irrational w/extreme emotions- slight changes in affect can help us make quick decisions- positive affect- when something gives us a warm feeling, more incline to interact w/it ie kids w/aubie- negative affect- when something gives u neg feeling, less incline to interact w/it ie auburn fans w/alabama- not always the best to use affect to make quick decisions sometimes u need to think about it
— there are decisions that are ultimately based in hedonic value ie it will make us feel good/bad- use hedonic system if it correlates w/this
— we need emotions to help us make reasonable decisions bc when we make a bad decision it feels bad so it leads u to think more abt it
— ex- emotions help make decisions- if u go to MCD and look at menu to see the many options and ur emotions can help u pick the most appealing option ie quick decision

How do emotions motivate us?

both emotion & motivation go tog bc emotion provides feedback & give urge to want to do something
— energy- made up of 2 qualities- initiative and persistent
—— initiative & persistence- for us to doing something we have to want to do it- energetic quality of motivation- this is where initiative and persistent quality come in- initiative quality is getting started and peristent is once u have started can u keep going
— motivation basic factors: needs (physiological, psychological, implicit) & drives (ie hunger when u haven’t eat in a while, interest & curiosity meaning having pleasant feeling but unsatisfied being curious so motivated to find out)
——when needs satisfied and drives are low- motivated behavior is low
- but when deprived of needs for a long time- drive gets greater- the longer it's been the more drive u have- less u have of need, the more the drive- u have to do more behavior to reduce the drive ie drive reduction theory

What is motivation?

Motivation is any factor that provides energy and/or direction to behavior

What is the difference between a drive and a need?

• motivation basic factors: A need is a basic requirement for survival or well-being (e.g., food, safety), while a drive is the psychological state of arousal that prompts action to fulfill a need (e.g., hunger leading to the drive to eat).
  — when needs satisfied and drives are low- motivated behavior is low- but when deprived of needs for a long time- drive gets greater- the longer it's been the more drive u have- less u have of need, the more the drive- u have to do more behavior to reduce the drive ie drive reduction theory

What do we mean by the energetic qualities of motivation (initiation vs. persistence)?

• energy- made up of 2 qualities- initiative and persistent
  — initiative & persistence- for us to doing something we have to want to do it- energetic quality of motivation- this is where initiative and persistent quality come in- initiative quality is getting started and persistence is once u have started can u keep going- Both are essential to achieve long-term goals.

What do we mean by the directive qualities of motivation?

direction- need to know what we need to do so it isn’t listless, helping focus energy on tasks that will satisfy specific needs