psych 1f03 final

Flashbulb memories

Flashbulb memories

detailed recollections of when and where we heard about shocking events, fallible(rely on attention and memory)

What is attention?

Selectively focus on the most relevant aspects of our environment

Selective Processing

Being selective about the information we process allows us to sift through the wealth of information available to us

Bottom-up processing hint: automatic

Stimulus-driven mechanism whereby we perceive events or stimuli by piecing together smaller pieces of sensory information. I.E automatically capture your attention in a reflexive manner. EX. The clap of thunder

Top-down processing hint: controlled

Memory-driven mechanism where by we perceive events or stimuli more holistically based on prior experiences or context. IE. your brain 'fills in the blanks' or directs your attention consciously EX. Putting your keys on the front desk when you return home

Orienting and spatial cueing

This paradigm allows researchers to measure shifts of attention across a scene

Overt attending

Direction of attention is made clear through eye movements

Covert attending

Not guided by eye movements but can be measured using spatial cueing

Inhibition of return

a slowing of reaction time associated with going back to a previously attended location

Visual search paradigm

Measures how long it takes to detect a target amid distracters as a function of set size(# of items)

The Pop-out effect

Bottom-up: driven by the target's unique properties

Conjunctive search

there are two or more features that differentiate the target from the distractors: response time increases

Contextual cueing

Guides our attention in a more efficient manner via prior knowledge

Selective attention

Focusing in on a subset of stimuli in our environment to process them more efficiently

The cocktail party effect

When a listener can focus on a single channel of auditory information by blocking out background noise

Breakthrough effect

Highly relevant information(I.e our name) from the background of our focus can still draw attention, as seen in the dichotic listening task

Dichotic listening task

Where one focuses on sounds played in the attended ear while disregarding sounds in the unattended ear

Inattention blindness

failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere

Change blindness

failing to notice changes in the environment, ex. A colour change

Spotlight model

Highlighting or enhancing the processing of things that fall within its focus

Broadbent's single filter model(early selection theory)

Physical information is filtered before semantic processing

Unattended information is completely filtered out


Does not account for the breakthrough effect

Treisman dual filter model(attenuation)

Unattended information is 'turned down'

Dual filter to decipher physically/semantically similarity to target information(Physical attenuator and semantic filter)

Explains breakthrough effect

Deutsch and Deutsch Late selection theory(late filter model)

Incoming information is analyzed for both physical and semantic meaning, everything else fades

Late filter filters based on personal relevance, short-term

Further processing stored in long-term

Explains breakthrough effect

The Stroop Task

A task invented in which a subject sees a list of words (color terms) printed in an ink color that differs from the word named. The subject is asked to name the ink colors of the words in the list and demonstrates great difficult in doing so, relative to a condition in which non-color words form the stimuli

Extensive practice with a task allows us to perform it almost automatically = consciously controlled

The three stages of Memory

Encoding, storage, retrieval

Phonological loop

short term storage of rehearsing a series of items

Visual-spatial sketchpad

Short term storage of visual information

Episodic buffer

A component of working memory where information in working memory interacts with information in long term memory (eg. relating information you are processing to a previous memory, buying pizza and the pizza menu on your fridge)

central executive

the part of working memory that directs attention and processing

Sensory memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

Short-term memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten

The multi-store model

stimuli/input to short term memory to long term memory(if rehearsed)

Two common ways to test memory

Free recall:
Generate items yourself

Recognition test:
Confirming validity

Long-term memory is stored in....

The hippocampus, amnesiacs have displayed this

Short term memory storage has a capacity of

7+/- 2 items

What two effects are displayed using the serial position curve?

Primacy effect: long term
Better recall of items shown early

Recency effect: short-term
Better recall of items in the end

How can the primacy and recency effects be manipulated?

Primacy:
Presentation time = longer/shorter time intervals = can be strengthened or weakened

Recency:
Performing a distractor task = can only be diminished or remain as is

Physical/shallow processing (worst)

- encoding requires little effort
- encoding physical characteristics
-poor memory performance

Acoustic/moderate processing (moderate)

- Encoding requires some effort
- encodes acoustic characteristics
- moderate memory performance

Semantic/Deeper level(best)

- Encoding requires significant effort
- Encode semantic characteristics
- Better memory performance

How do you best remember things?

Words processes according to self, then meaning, then phonological then physical

Encoding specificity

Information is encoded in conjunction with other aspect of the learning environment such as the physical environment or mental state

Can be used as retrieval cues

Transfer-appropriate processing

Remembering is most likely when the mental state is similar in both encoding and retrieval

Forgetting curve

Negatively accelerating function

Information is forgotten shortly after learning and is then gradually forgotten

Decay theory on forgetting

Based simply on time, explains forgetting short-term memory, not the accepted model

Misinformation effect

Newly learned information influences our ability to remember a past event: 'false memories'

Source-monitoring effect (Misattributing fluency)

failing to recall exactly where you learned the information

Interference theory on forgetting

Forgetting is driven by the inability to access information because other learned information competes for retrieval

Situational attribution

attributing behavior to the environment

Dispositional attribution

Attributing behaviour to traits of the person

Fundamental attribution error

Over-estimate dispositional attributes and under-estimate situational attributes

Americans focus on the former and Indians focus on the latter

Self-serving bias

Our own success is dispositional and our own failure is situational

Actor-oberserver effect

consider situational factors of your own behaviour but the dispositional factors of other's behaviour

Covariation theory:situational

Consensus, distinctiveness consistency

Consensus

How do others behave in this situation?
different people, same situation
High: situational
Low: dispositional

distinctiveness

How do they behave in other situations?
same person, different situations
High: situational
Low: Dispositional

Consistency

How do they behave in this situation at other times
same person, same situation at other times
High: could be situational or dispositional
Low: Wider situational

High consensus, high distinctiveness, high consistency =

Situational attribution

Low consensus, low distinctiveness, high consistency =

Dispositional attribution

Low consistency

Wider situational

Correspondent inference theory: dispositional

Degree or choice, Expectation and intended consequences

Degree of choice

the amount of freedom the actor had in choosing their opinion or behaviour

Expectation

the degree to which an individual's behavior in a particular social role matches our expectations for that role

Intended consequences

The goals and motivation of an actor underlying their behavior

Representativeness heuristic

We tend to judge a particular outcome to be likely to occur if it is similar to the population, regardless of probability

Availability heuristic

estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common. EX. As a result of media coverage

The false consensus effect

Overestimating how much others agree with our opinions

Illusory correlation

Cause people to believe two variables are related even though there is no evidence. Ex. Stereotypes

Proximity effect

Functional and phsyical distance
Close together, interact often = BEST

Familiarity effect

More familiar =more attractive

Mere exposure effect

Positivity towards familiar stimuli

Physical attractiveness effect

Used as an indicator of personal characteristics

Halo effect

Positive impression = positive characteristics

Other's opinion effect

- We like people who like us back
- we like people the most when they previously disliked us and now like us

Social facilitation

The increased performance that occurs in the presences of an audience on well-practiced tasks

Social learning theory

We learn appropriate behaviours by modelling and imitating the behaviours of others

Ex. Bobo doll experiment: children displayed aggressive behaviours to a harmless doll

Sherif's auto kinetic effect on conformity

The movement of a dot against a black background

Norm formation leads to convergence in behaviour

What function is display in Sherif's auto kinetic effect?

Informational function: the role of others in providing information about an ambiguous situation

Asch's investigation on conformity

Normative function:
The role of others in setting standards for our conduct based on a fear of rejection

Social influence

Deutsch and Gerard study

Participants doubt their own perceptions when it conflicts with that of others

Do groups make better decisions than individuals?

Group decisions are typically riskier

Group polarization

the enhancement of a group's prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group

Consensus is pushed to the extreme

Risky

Groupthink

Mob mentality: highly cohesive and overrides alternative opinions

How do you avoid groupthink

Being impartial, Devi's advocate, provide second chance, subdivide the group

social loafing

You put in less work when you think others will help carry the weight

Pluralistic ignorance responding in a given situation, they conclude that the situation is not an emergency

When each individual in a group sees nobody

Diffusion of responsibility

In deciding whether we have to act, we determine that someone else in the group is more qualified

The bystander effect

the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present

Milgrim's experiment

Revealed people are highly influenced by authority and highly obedient

Obedience was measured by the level of shock that the participant was willing to deliver

2/3 of people would continue to the end

Does proximity affect Milgrim's experiment

Increasing physical distance = more obedience

Cognitive dissonance

unpleasant mental experience of tension resulting from two conflicting thoughts or beliefs

We then provide reasons for our actions

Overjustification effect

prevents cognitive dissonance: conflict in behaviour is justified by some external means: reinforcement

deindividuation

The loss of a sense of personal responsibility and restraint as a result of anonymity

The most persuasive communicators have...

High credibility, attractive, relatable, straightforward and consistent speech style, eye contact, speed

One-sided argument

Audience initially agrees: preaching to the choir

Two-sided argument

Audience initially disagrees: apprentice two points of view

Central appeal

well-reasoned, factual, two-sided arguments that are effective for intelligent audiences

Peripheral appeal

Well presented, easy to understand messages which are effective for unintelligent audiences.

The foot in the door technique

asking for a small commitment and, after gaining compliance, asking for a bigger commitment

The low-ball technique

persuasive technique in which the seller of a product starts by quoting a low sales price and then mentions all of the add-on costs once the customer has agreed to purchase the product