AP HG

Site

• Definition: The exact physical location and natural characteristics of a place (e.g., landforms, climate).

• Example: A city next to a river has a “river‐valley” site.

Situation

• Definition: A place’s location relative to other places or geographic features.

• Example: A town’s situation might be “30 miles from the state capital, along a major highway.”

Urbanization

• Definition: The process of more people moving to cities, causing the cities to grow.

• Example: During the Industrial Revolution, many people left farms for jobs in urban factories.

Suburbanization

• Definition: The movement of people from city centers to the areas at the edge of the city (suburbs).

• Example: Families moving out of a crowded downtown to a house with a yard in the suburbs.

Hearth

• Definition: The place where an idea, trend, or cultural element starts before spreading.

• Example: Ancient Mesopotamia was a hearth for early farming and civilization.

Megacities

• Definition: Very large cities with over 10 million people.

• Example: Tokyo, Mumbai, and Mexico City are megacities.

Metacities

• Definition: Extremely large urban areas, often with over 20 million people.

• Example: Tokyo–Yokohama, which exceeds 30 million people.

Periphery Countries

• Definition: Poorer nations with weaker economies that often export raw materials and rely on basic industries.

• Example: Many countries in Sub‐Saharan Africa are considered in the periphery in global trade.

Semiperiphery Countries

• Definition: Nations that have some economic development and are “in between” poor (periphery) and wealthy (core) countries.

• Example: Nations like Brazil or India, which are quickly industrializing but still have large poor regions.

Core Countries

• Definition: Wealthy, industrialized nations that dominate world trade and technology.

• Example: The United States, Japan, and many Western European countries.

Urban Sprawl

• Definition: The spread of a city into areas outside the core, often with low‐density housing and car dependency.

• Example: Large suburbs popping up around Phoenix, Arizona, with few high‐rise buildings.

Land Use

• Definition: How land is utilized (e.g., for farming, housing, businesses, or factories).

• Example: Zoning laws might separate land for houses from land for factories.

Edge Cities

• Definition: Suburban centers with their own shopping, business areas, and entertainment, acting like mini‐downtowns.

• Example: Tysons Corner near Washington, D.C., which has tall office buildings and malls.

Exurbs

• Definition: Areas even farther out than traditional suburbs, often where people live on larger properties but still commute to the city.

• Example: A quiet town 40–50 miles away from a city where residents drive in for work.

Boomburbs

• Definition: Rapidly growing suburban cities that expand so quickly they almost feel like major cities themselves.

• Example: Irvine, California, started as a suburb but grew into a large, economically strong city.

Globalization

• Definition: The increasing connections among countries through trade, communication, and culture.

• Example: International brands like McDonald’s and Nike found worldwide.

World Cities

• Definition: Cities with a big influence on global economics, politics, and culture.

• Example: London, New York, and Tokyo are major financial and cultural hubs.

Global Linkages

• Definition: The connections and relationships among countries and cities in trade, communication, and culture.

• Example: Internet, shipping routes, and international flights tying economies together.

Urban Hierarchy

• Definition: The ranking of cities based on their size and economic importance, from small towns up to huge global cities.

• Example: A regional town < a medium‐sized city < a large metropolis < a world city.

Mediate

• Definition: In geography, to act as a go‐between or connector.

• Example: A port city can mediate trade by connecting inland producers to overseas markets.

Size and Distribution of Cities

• Definition: How many cities exist and where they are located, plus how large they are in population.

• Example: Analyzing why more big cities are found along coasts or rivers.

Rank Size Rule

• Definition: A pattern where a country’s second‐largest city is half the size of the largest city, the third‐largest is one‐third the size, and so on.

• Example: In the U.S., New York is #1, Los Angeles is roughly half its size, Chicago is about one‐third, etc.

Primate City

• Definition: A city that is more than twice as large as the next biggest city in the same country, dominating politics and culture.

• Example: Bangkok in Thailand, which is vastly larger than Thailand’s other cities.

Christaller’s Central Place Theory

• Definition: Explains how cities and towns are spaced out to offer goods and services to surrounding areas, with fewer big cities and many small towns.

• Example: A few large cities with specialized services (like major hospitals) and many smaller towns with basic services (like grocery stores).

Range

• Definition: The maximum distance people will travel to buy a good or service.

• Example: Driving 30 minutes to a special mall, but only walking 5 minutes to a convenience store.

Threshold

• Definition: The minimum number of people needed to support a store or service.

• Example: A high‐end boutique needs a certain population of wealthy shoppers before it can stay open.

Gravity Model

• Definition: The idea that places with bigger populations and closer distances attract more people, services, or trade—like “gravity” pulling them.

• Example: People are more likely to go to a large city that’s nearby than a smaller city far away.

Spatial Distribution

• Definition: The way something is spread out across a certain area.

• Example: Mapping how fast‐food restaurants are scattered throughout a city.

Interdependence

• Definition: Places or people relying on each other for goods, services, or support.

• Example: A farming region needs a city’s market to sell produce, and the city needs the farms for fresh food.

Infrastructure

• Definition: Basic facilities and systems we depend on—like roads, bridges, power lines, and water pipes.

• Example: Highways help people commute to work, and power grids supply electricity.

Burgess Concentric Zone Model

• Definition: An early idea that cities grow in circular “rings” around a downtown center (CBD).

• Example: In this model, the middle ring might be older homes, and the outer ring might be new suburbs.

Hoyt Sector Model

• Definition: A theory that cities develop in wedges or “slices,” often along transportation routes, rather than perfect rings.

• Example: A city’s high‐income neighborhood may stretch out along a main highway.

Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei Model

• Definition: Suggests that large cities have multiple centers (not just one downtown), each with different activities.

• Example: Los Angeles has multiple “downtowns,” like Hollywood and Downtown LA itself.

Galactic City Model (Peripheral Model)

• Definition: Describes a spread‐out city where the old downtown is still important, but suburban areas with shopping malls and offices form “edge cities.”

• Example: A modern metropolis with a big beltway (ring road) and business parks near the highway exits.

Bid Rent Theory

• Definition: Land near the city center costs more because it’s in high demand, so different land uses (shops, offices, homes) “bid” higher amounts for it.

• Example: Fancy stores willing to pay high rents to be downtown for foot traffic.

Latin American City Model

• Definition: Shows that many Latin American cities have a main business district and a “spine” of wealthier areas that lead out from the center, with poorer areas on the outskirts.

• Example: Mexico City has nice neighborhoods and roads leading away from its center, surrounded by poorer areas on the edges.

Sub Saharan African City Model

• Definition: Many African cities have more than one city center (some from colonial times), and large slums at the edges.

• Example: Nairobi has a colonial downtown, a traditional business area, and informal neighborhoods outside.

Southeast Asian City Model

• Definition: In some Southeast Asian cities, the port (harbor) is the historical heart, and the city spreads out from it rather than having a single central business district.

• Example: Manila, in the Philippines, grew around its port zone and has different specialized areas farther inland.

Density

• Definition: The number of people or buildings in a certain area.

• Example: Manhattan in New York City has very high population density.

Infilling

• Definition: Building on empty spaces within a city instead of expanding outward, to prevent sprawl.

• Example: Turning a vacant lot downtown into new apartments or a grocery store.

Cycles of Development

• Definition: The idea that neighborhoods go through stages of growth, decline, and sometimes renewal.

• Example: An old industrial district might become run‐down, then later be turned into trendy lofts.

Built Landscape

• Definition: The man‐made features on the land, like buildings, roads, and parks.

• Example: Skyscrapers and sidewalks are part of a city’s built landscape.

Low Density

• Definition: Fewer people or homes in a large area (often single‐family homes with big yards).

• Example: Suburban neighborhoods with detached houses.

Medium Density

• Definition: More people than low density, but not as many as high density—often smaller houses, duplexes, or low‐rise apartments.

• Example: Townhouse communities near a city’s edge.

High Density

• Definition: Very crowded areas with lots of people or homes in a small space, typically tall apartment buildings.

• Example: Downtown areas with skyscrapers and high‐rise condos.

Impact on Density on Residential Land Use

• Definition: Higher density often means taller buildings and less car use, while lower density means more single homes and more driving.

• Example: People in very dense cities often use the subway, while suburbanites drive everywhere.

Spatial Patterns of Economic and Social Development

• Definition: How wealth, jobs, and social groups are laid out in different areas.

• Example: Tech companies might cluster in certain neighborhoods, raising housing costs there.

Urban Sustainability

• Definition: Making cities healthier and greener so they use fewer resources and produce less waste.

• Example: Encouraging public transit, recycling, and energy‐efficient buildings to cut pollution.

Sustainable Design Initiatives

• Definition: Designing buildings and cities to be eco‐friendly and comfortable for people.

• Example: Using solar panels and green roofs on apartments.

Zoning

• Definition: Local laws that say what can be built in certain areas (for example, housing or industry).

• Example: An area may only allow houses and not factories.

Mixed Land Use

• Definition: Having stores, homes, and offices all in one place so people can walk between them.

• Example: A neighborhood with apartments on top of shops and restaurants.

Walkability

• Definition: How easy and safe it is for people to walk around a neighborhood to do daily errands.

• Example: Many European city centers have sidewalks, bike lanes, and are close to grocery stores.

Transportation Oriented Development

• Definition: Building neighborhoods around public transportation stops so people can walk or ride instead of drive.

• Example: Apartments, offices, and shops all near a major subway station.

Smart Growth Policies

• Definition: Rules to stop cities from wasting land and money by sprawling out too far, and instead use existing urban areas better.

• Example: Encouraging taller buildings downtown instead of building on farmland.

New Urbanism

• Definition: A movement to design neighborhoods like older towns—walkable, mixed‐use, and with a strong community feel.

• Example: Seaside, Florida, which has front porches and small blocks to encourage walking.

Greenbelts

• Definition: Areas of open land around a city where building is not allowed, to protect nature.

• Example: The Green Belt around London keeps the city from spreading too far.

Slow Growth Cities

• Definition: Cities that limit how fast they expand in order to keep a good quality of life and protect the environment.

• Example: Boulder, Colorado, has strict building laws and protects open spaces.

De Facto Segregation

• Definition: When people of different races or incomes end up living apart, not by law but because of social or economic reasons.

• Example: Neighborhoods where most residents are of one ethnic group due to income levels or cultural connections.

Placelessness

• Definition: When different places start looking the same because of chain stores, fast‐food restaurants, and similar buildings.

• Example: Driving from one suburb to another and seeing the same big‐box stores and chain restaurants everywhere.

Quantitative Data

• Definition: Information that can be counted or measured with numbers.

• Example: A city’s population, average income, and crime rates.

Qualitative Data

• Definition: Information based on descriptions and opinions rather than numbers.

• Example: Interviews with residents about why they like their neighborhood.

Census

• Definition: An official count of how many people live in a country, including basic information like age and race.

• Example: The United States does a census every 10 years to track population changes.

Population Composition

• Definition: The makeup of a population by traits like age, gender, and ethnicity.

• Example: A city might have a large elderly population or a big group of young adults.

Housing Discrimination

• Definition: Treating people differently when they try to rent or buy homes because of factors like race, religion, or family size.

• Example: A landlord refusing to rent to a family because they have children.

Redlining

• Definition: A past practice where banks refused to lend money in certain areas, often poor or minority neighborhoods, causing them to decline.

• Example: Maps with red lines drawn around neighborhoods where no loans would be given.

Blockbusting

• Definition: Encouraging homeowners to sell their houses cheaply by scaring them that a different racial group is moving in, then reselling at higher prices.

• Example: In the mid‐1900s, real estate agents created panic selling among white families to profit.

Environmental Injustice

• Definition: When poorer or minority groups face more pollution or risk because of where they live.

• Example: Factories built near low‐income neighborhoods, causing health problems.

Disamenity zones

• Definition: Parts of a city that lack good services and are often run‐down.

• Example: Areas without proper roads, streetlights, or reliable water supply.

Zones of Abandonment

• Definition: Places in a city that no one invests in anymore, where buildings might be empty or crumbling.

• Example: Large sections of Detroit after factories closed and people moved away.

Squatter Settlements

• Definition: Neighborhoods where very poor people build homes on land they don’t own, usually with no official services.

• Example: Shacks made of scrap materials on city outskirts.

Land Tenure

• Definition: Who owns or controls the land, including legal or traditional rules.

• Example: A farmer with legal documents owning his land versus a family who just lives on land informally.

Urban Renewal

• Definition: When a city clears out old or poor areas and builds new houses, offices, or parks.

• Example: Bulldozing run‐down buildings to make space for new developments or public housing.

Gentrification

• Definition: When wealthier people move into older or run‐down areas, fixing them up but often pushing out poorer residents due to higher rents.

• Example: A once‐cheap neighborhood turns trendy with expensive coffee shops.

Fragmentation of Government

• Definition: When a metropolitan area has many small governments instead of a single one, which can make cooperation hard.

• Example: A big city with dozens of separate suburbs and each suburb has its own mayor and rules.

Inclusionary Zoning

• Definition: Rules that require new housing projects to include some homes that are affordable for lower‐income people.

• Example: A city might say that 10% of all new apartments must be rented at below-market prices.

Sanitation

• Definition: Systems that keep our surroundings clean, such as sewers and garbage collection.

• Example: City trash trucks pick up garbage weekly to prevent disease.

Climate Change

• Definition: Long‐term changes in Earth’s weather patterns (like temperature and rainfall) often caused by human activities (for example, burning oil and coal).

• Example: Warmer oceans can lead to stronger hurricanes affecting coastal cities.

Ecological Footprint

• Definition: A measure of how much land and water a person or group needs to produce what they use and to handle their waste.

• Example: A family that drives two large cars and uses a lot of electricity will have a bigger footprint than one using public transport and solar energy.

Remediation and Redevelopment of Brownfields

• Definition: Cleaning up old, polluted industrial areas and turning them into new places people can use.

• Example: Turning an abandoned factory site into a public park or an office building.

Urban Growth Boundaries

• Definition: Invisible lines around a city that limit where new buildings can go, so farmland and nature are protected.

• Example: Portland, Oregon uses these boundaries to prevent the city from sprawling into forests.

Farmland Protection Policies

• Definition: Laws and rules that protect farmland from being turned into housing or shopping centers.

• Example: Giving tax breaks to farmers so they keep growing crops instead of selling their land to developers.

Annexation

• Definition: When a city takes over land that was not previously part of it.

• Example: A town might expand its boundaries to include nearby neighborhoods.

Informal Settlements

• Definition: Places where people build homes without official permission and often without basic services (like clean water).

• Example: Shantytowns or slums in big global cities where people live in makeshift houses.

Density Gradient

• Definition: How the number of people in a city changes as you move from the center to the edge.

• Example: The middle of a city might be packed with people, but the suburbs have fewer people per square mile.

Megalopolis

• Definition: When several large cities and their surrounding areas grow so big that they blend into one huge urban region.

• Example: The area from Boston to Washington, D.C. is one continuous urban zone.

Metropolitan Area

• Definition: A city and the surrounding towns that are socially and economically connected.

• Example: The greater Chicago area includes the city and many smaller suburbs.

Micropolitan Area

• Definition: A smaller urban area (10,000 to 50,000 people) plus nearby communities that depend on it.

• Example: A small city with a regional hospital and stores that serve nearby rural areas.

Census Tract

• Definition: Small regions created by the government to collect detailed population data.

• Example: Cities are divided into many census tracts to count people accurately every 10 years.

Post Industrial Cities

• Definition: Cities that used to focus on making things in factories but now focus on services and technology.

• Example: Pittsburgh once was all about steel but is now known for universities and tech companies.

European Union (EU)

• Definition: A group of European countries that work together for economic and political cooperation, allowing free trade and travel among most members.

• Example: People can cross from Germany into France without border checks under the EU’s rules

Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)

• Definition: A group of Southeast Asian countries that work together on trade, security, and cultural exchanges.

• Example: Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand cooperate on agreements to boost trade in the region.

Arctic Council

• Definition: A group of countries with land in the Arctic, aiming to protect the environment and cooperate on Arctic issues.

• Example: Members include the US, Canada, and Russia, discussing how to manage shipping routes in melting sea ice.

African Union (AU)

• Definition: A union of African nations promoting peace, unity, and economic growth in Africa.

• Example: The AU may send peacekeeping troops to areas of conflict, like in Somalia or Sudan.

Brexit

• Definition: Britain’s withdrawal from the European Union, voted on in 2016 and completed in 2020.

• Example: This changed trade, travel, and immigration rules between the UK and EU countries.

Centrifugal Forces

• Definition: Factors or events that push people apart or create division within a country.

• Example: Different ethnic groups might clash if they feel unfairly treated, creating tension.

Centripetal Forces

• Definition: Factors that pull people together or create unity within a country.

• Example: A strong national identity or shared language can bring citizens closer.

Failed State

• Definition: A country where the government can’t keep order, provide services, or control its territory.

• Example: Somalia has struggled with a weak central government and ongoing violence.

Ethnic Nationalist Movement

• Definition: When an ethnic group pushes for greater self‐government or independence based on shared culture or history.

• Example: The Catalans in Spain seeking more autonomy—or even independence—for Catalonia.

Cultural Cohesion

• Definition: When people in a society share common values, beliefs, or practices that create unity.

• Example: National holidays or sports events that bring people together.

Genocide

• Definition: The planned killing of a large group of people, usually because of their ethnicity or religion.

• Example: The Holocaust, where millions of Jews were systematically murdered during World War II.