Pathophysiology Module 1 – Professor Loren

100 vocabulary-style flashcards covering core terms from the lecture on altered cells, tissues, and fluid-electrolyte balance.

Epithelial tissue

Body tissue that covers exposed surfaces, lines hollow organs, and forms glands that secrete fluids.

Connective tissue

Supportive tissue type that fills internal spaces, stores energy, and binds or separates other tissues and organs.

Muscle tissue

Contractile tissue responsible for producing movement; includes skeletal, cardiac, and smooth types.

Skeletal muscle

Voluntary, striated muscle attached to bones and responsible for body movement.

Cardiac muscle

Involuntary, striated muscle found only in the heart, responsible for pumping blood.

Smooth muscle

Involuntary, non-striated muscle found in walls of hollow organs and vessels; regulates internal movement.

Nervous tissue

Tissue specialized for generating and transmitting electrical impulses throughout the body.

Cytoplasm

All cellular contents between the plasma membrane and nucleus, consisting of cytosol and organelles.

Organelle

Specialized intracellular structure that performs a distinct function essential for cell survival.

Mitochondrion

Organelle that produces ATP, the principal cellular energy source; often called the cell’s powerhouse.

Lysosome

Digestive organelle containing hydrolytic enzymes that break down cellular debris and metabolic substances.

Golgi apparatus

Organelle that modifies, packages, and prepares proteins and lipids for secretion from the cell.

Endoplasmic reticulum

Organelle network that synthesizes proteins (rough ER) and lipids (smooth ER) and regulates intracellular ions.

Peroxisome

Organelle that neutralizes free radicals and detoxifies harmful substances to promote cell survival.

Nucleus

Membrane-bound control center of the cell containing DNA and coordinating gene expression and replication.

DNA

Deoxyribonucleic acid; hereditary material that stores genetic instructions for protein synthesis and cell function.

Chromosome

Linear DNA structure; humans have 23 pairs that collectively carry the genetic code.

Gene

Segment of DNA that encodes the instructions for producing a specific protein or functional RNA molecule.

RNA

Ribonucleic acid that carries genetic information from DNA to ribosomes for protein translation.

ATP

Adenosine triphosphate; high-energy molecule used to drive cellular processes requiring energy.

Passive transport

Movement of substances across a membrane without energy input, driven by concentration gradients.

Diffusion

Passive movement of particles from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration.

Osmosis

Passive movement of water across a semipermeable membrane toward a higher solute concentration.

Facilitated transport

Passive movement across membranes via specific carrier or channel proteins, without energy expenditure.

Active transport

Energy-requiring movement of substances across membranes against their concentration gradients via carrier proteins.

Endocytosis

Energy-dependent process of engulfing large substances into the cell by membrane invagination.

Pinocytosis

Form of endocytosis in which the cell ingests small, liquid-containing vesicles (‘cell drinking’).

Phagocytosis

Form of endocytosis in which the cell engulfs large particles such as bacteria or debris (‘cell eating’).

Exocytosis

Process of vesicular fusion with the plasma membrane to expel materials from the cell.

Atrophy

Decrease in cell size due to reduced demand, denervation, or ischemia.

Hypertrophy

Increase in cell size resulting from increased workload or hormonal stimulation.

Hyperplasia

Increase in the number of cells in a tissue or organ, often in response to a stimulus.

Metaplasia

Reversible substitution of one cell type for another better able to withstand stress.

Dysplasia

Disordered growth with changes in cell size, shape, and organization; may precede neoplasia.

Apoptosis

Programmed cell death triggered by genetic signals to remove old, damaged, or unnecessary cells.

Necrosis

Uncontrolled cell death resulting from injury and associated with inflammation.

Endogenous toxin

Harmful substance originating within the body, such as an allergic reaction product.

Exogenous toxin

Harmful chemical or agent originating outside the body, e.g., alcohol or pollutants.

Ischemia

Reduced blood flow leading to oxygen deficiency and potential cellular injury or atrophy.

Hypovolemia

Deficit of body fluid volume caused by fluid loss, insufficient intake, or third spacing.

Hypervolemia

Excess extracellular fluid volume expansion in interstitial or vascular space, often isotonic.

Electrolyte

Ion that conducts electricity in solution and helps maintain acid-base and fluid balance.

Cation

Positively charged ion such as Na⁺, K⁺, Ca²⁺, or H⁺.

Anion

Negatively charged ion such as Cl⁻, HCO₃⁻, SO₄²⁻, or PO₄³⁻.

Sodium (Na⁺)

Major extracellular cation essential for fluid balance, nerve impulse conduction, and muscle function.

Potassium (K⁺)

Primary intracellular cation critical for maintaining membrane potential and cardiac rhythm.

Calcium (Ca²⁺)

Cation important for bone structure, muscle contraction, nerve signaling, and blood clotting.

Hydrogen ion (H⁺)

Cation that determines acidity; crucial for acid-base balance.

Chloride (Cl⁻)

Major extracellular anion that helps maintain electroneutrality and osmotic pressure.

Bicarbonate (HCO₃⁻)

Buffering anion that helps regulate blood pH within narrow limits.

Sulfate (SO₄²⁻)

Anion involved in various metabolic and detoxification processes.

Phosphate (PO₄³⁻)

Intracellular anion vital for ATP production, bone mineralization, and acid-base buffering.

Hyponatremia

Serum sodium level below 135 mEq/L causing cellular swelling, headache, confusion, and seizures.

Hypernatremia

Serum sodium level above 145 mEq/L leading to cellular shrinkage, thirst, and neurological changes.

Hypokalemia

Serum potassium level below 3.5 mEq/L associated with muscle cramps, fatigue, and flattened T waves.

Hyperkalemia

Serum potassium level above 5.0 mEq/L that can cause peaked T waves, dysrhythmias, and cardiac arrest.

Hydrostatic pressure

Force exerted by fluid against capillary walls, pushing water out of the vascular compartment.

Osmotic pressure

Pulling force exerted by solutes that draws water into the capillaries.

Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System (RAAS)

Hormonal cascade activated by low perfusion to increase blood volume and blood pressure.

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

Posterior pituitary hormone that increases water reabsorption in kidneys via aquaporins.

Aldosterone

Adrenal cortex hormone that promotes sodium retention and potassium excretion to regulate volume and pressure.

Syndrome of Inappropriate Antidiuretic Hormone (SIADH)

Condition of excessive ADH causing water retention and dilutional hyponatremia without peripheral edema.

Diabetes insipidus

Deficiency or insensitivity to ADH leading to polyuria, polydipsia, and hyperosmolality.

Osmoreceptor

Hypothalamic sensor that detects changes in plasma osmolality and regulates thirst and ADH release.

Aquaporin

Water channel protein in renal tubules that facilitates rapid water reabsorption under ADH influence.

Urine specific gravity

Measure comparing urine density to water, reflecting kidney’s concentrating ability.

Serum osmolality

Concentration of solutes in blood plasma indicating hydration and electrolyte status.

Urine osmolality

Concentration of solutes in urine used to assess renal concentrating function.

Tolvaptan

ADH receptor antagonist used to treat SIADH by promoting free water excretion.

Desmopressin (DDAVP)

Synthetic ADH analog used as hormone replacement in central diabetes insipidus.

Third spacing

Shift of fluid from intravascular space to transcellular compartments, reducing circulating volume.

Jugular venous distension

Visible bulging of neck veins indicating increased central venous pressure, often in hypervolemia.

Crackles

Abnormal lung sounds associated with fluid in alveoli, common in hypervolemia.

Edema

Excess accumulation of fluid in interstitial spaces resulting in tissue swelling.

Decreased skin turgor

Loss of skin elasticity indicating dehydration or hypovolemia.

Capillary refill

Time for color to return to blanched nail bed; prolonged in poor perfusion.

Tissue

Group of similar cells performing a common function and forming structural units of the body.

Cellular adaptation

Reversible changes in cell size, number, phenotype, or function in response to stress.

Cellular injury

Damage to cell structure or function caused by toxins, ischemia, infection, or physical factors.

Fluid balance

Dynamic equilibrium between fluid intake, distribution, and excretion across compartments.

Acid-base balance

Homeostatic regulation of hydrogen ion concentration to maintain optimal pH.

Facilitated diffusion

Carrier-mediated passive transport of molecules like glucose across membranes.

Homeostasis

Maintenance of a stable internal environment despite external changes.

Electrical impulse

Rapid movement of charged ions along neurons enabling communication within the nervous system.

Transport proteins

Membrane proteins that facilitate movement of ions or molecules across cell membranes.

Carrier-mediated transport

Movement across membranes requiring specific protein carriers, may be passive or active.

Serum deficit

Lack of sufficient nutrients, water, or oxygen in the blood leading to cellular injury.

Mechanical injury

Physical force damage to cells, such as trauma or pressure.

Thermal injury

Cellular damage caused by extreme heat or cold.

Pathogenic infection

Cell injury resulting from invasion by bacteria, viruses, fungi, or protozoa.

Free radical

Unstable molecule with unpaired electrons that can damage cellular components.

Genetic code

Sequence of nucleotide bases in DNA that dictates protein synthesis.

Protein synthesis

Process of building proteins through transcription and translation of genetic information.

Translation (biology)

Ribosomal process of reading mRNA to assemble amino acids into a polypeptide chain.

Hypotonic solution

Fluid with lower solute concentration than plasma, causing cells to swell.

Hypertonic solution

Fluid with higher solute concentration than plasma, causing cells to shrink.

Isotonic solution

Fluid with solute concentration equal to plasma, causing no net water movement in cells.

Water retention

Excessive accumulation of water in the body, often due to elevated ADH or aldosterone.

Polyuria

Excessive urine production, typical in diabetes insipidus.

Polydipsia

Excessive thirst and fluid intake, common in conditions causing polyuria.