AP psych final exam

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Biopsyhosocial Approach

an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis.

Evolutionary Psychology

the study of the roots of behavior and mental processes using the principles of natural selection.

Psychoanalysis/ Psychodynamic wave 3

Started with Sigmund Freud; emphasized the unconscious mind and childhood experiences; how they affect our behavior

Behavioral Psychology

the scientific study of observable behavior, and its explanation by principles of learning.

Behavior genetics perspective

How much our genes and environment limits/influence our differences; studies relative power

Cognitive Psychology

the scientific study of all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

Social-Cultural Psychology

the study of how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking.

Humanistic Psychology

historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people and the individual's potential for personal growth; Maslov

Descriptive

Research that observes and records; describes; ( case study, survey, naturalistic, observation) cons: no control of variables, single cases may be misleading

Correlational

Research that detects, naturally occurring relationships; assesses, how well, one variable predicts another; no manipulation of variables, conns: cannot specify cause-and-effect

Experimental

Research that explores cause-and-effect; manipulates, one or more factors (IV); Random assignment; Cons: sometimes, not feasible, results may not generalize, not always ethical

Common errors made in research

perceive random order, non-random assignment, assuming correlation proves causation, generalizing from extreme samples, relying on self-reported data

Longitudinal

a study or research design that follows the same group of individuals over an extended period to observe changes or trends

Cross sectional

a type of observational research design that analyzes data collected from a population at a specific point in time. It aims to provide a snapshot of the population's characteristics or behaviors at that particular moment.

mean

the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores

median

the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it

mode

the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution

range

Difference between the largest and smallest values

standard deviation

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

Quasi experiments

research studies that lack random assignment; used when random assignment is not feasible or ethical; allow researchers to study cause-and-effect relationships, but they have limitations in terms of internal validity.

quantitative

Deals with numbers; researchers start with it

qualitative

Descriptive data; investigative; categorizes

placebo effect

experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which is assumed to be an active agent

double blind

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.

single blind

a research design where the participants are unaware of certain information or conditions, while the researchers are aware. This helps to minimize bias and ensure the validity of the study.

random selection

the process of choosing participants for a study or experiment in a way that ensures each individual has an equal chance of being selected; increases the generalizability of the findings

random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups

Correlational study

Research that detects, naturally occurring relationships, assesses, how well, one variable predicts another; no manipulation of variables, conns: cannot specify cause-and-effect

scatterplot

a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter indicates high correlation). (Also called a scattergram or scatter diagram.)

Correlational coefficient

Statistical measure of the extent to which two factors relate to each other

illusionary correlation

the perception of a relationship where none exists

descriptive

case study, naturalistic observation, the survey

case study

an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

naturalistic observation

observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

survey

a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of people, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of them.;

Pros: cheap, anonymous, diverse population, easy to get.

Cons: low response rate, people lie, wording effects

operational definition

a statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables. For example, human intelligence may be _________ as what an intelligence test measures

Independent variable

The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

Dependent variable

The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

extraneous variable

any variable other than the independent variable that can influence the dependent variable and therefore affect the results of an experiment. important to control or eliminate to ensure the validity and reliability of the study.

confounding variable

A confounding variable in psychology refers to an extraneous variable that is related to both the independent and dependent variables, making it difficult to determine the true relationship between them. It can lead to inaccurate or misleading results in research studies.

control

the condition of an experiment that contrasts with the experimental condition and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment

framing

the way information is presented or framed, which can influence how people perceive and interpret it. It involves highlighting certain aspects of a situation or issue while downplaying others, shaping the way individuals make judgments and decisions

overconfidence

We tend to think we know more than we do

Belief perseverance

a cognitive bias in psychology where individuals tend to cling to their initial beliefs even when presented with contradictory evidence. This bias can lead to the persistence of false or unsupported beliefs

Representativeness heuristic

a cognitive bias in psychology where people make judgments or decisions based on how closely something or someone resembles a typical example or prototype; ex)if someone assumes that a person who wears glasses and reads a lot must be a professor, they are using the representativeness heuristic.

Availability heuristic

a mental shortcut that relies on immediate examples that come to mind when evaluating a specific topic or making a decision; based on the idea that people tend to judge the likelihood or frequency of an event based on how easily they can recall or remember similar instances.

statistical significance

a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance

Cerebellum

the "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory.

Hypothalamus

neural structure lying below (hypo) the thalamus;(eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward.

Parietal lobe

portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position.

frontal lobe

portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments.

Occipital lobe

portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from the visual fields.

Temporal lobe

portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear.

Prefrontal cortex

a region of the brain located at the front of the frontal lobe; plays a crucial role in various cognitive functions, such as decision-making, problem-solving, planning, attention, and social behavior. .

Corpus collosum

a thick band of nerve fibers that connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain; allows for communication and coordination between the two hemispheres, enabling them to work together in various cognitive and motor functions.

Acetylcholine (ACH)

• enables muscle action, learning, memory

• Alzheimers occurs when ____ producing neurons deteriorate

Dopamine

• influences movement, learning, attention, emotion

• oversupply - schiziophrenia

• undersupply- parkinsons (tremors)

Histamine

chemical compound; It is involved in allergic reactions, regulating stomach acid production, and neurotransmission.

Serotonin

a neurotransmitter that plays a crucial role in regulating mood

GABA (gommaaminobutyric aci)

• major inhibitory neurotransmitter

• undersupply- seizures, tremors, insomnia

reuptake

a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron.

Accommodation

the process of adjusting one's existing cognitive schemas or mental frameworks to incorporate new information or experiences; when individuals encounter new or conflicting information that cannot be assimilated into their existing schemas. To resolve this cognitive dissonance, individuals modify their schemas to accommodate the new information

Myelination

the process by which nerve fibers are coated with a fatty substance called myelin. This protective sheath helps to insulate and speed up the transmission of electrical signals along the nerve fibers.

Neuroplasticity

refers to the brain's ability to change and adapt throughout a person's life. It involves the formation of new neural connections and the reorganization of existing ones. This process allows the brain to learn, recover from injuries, and adapt to new experiences.

Circadian rhythm

the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle.

Delta waves

the large, slow brain waves associated with the deep sleep of NREM-3.

NREM sleep

non-rapid eye movement sleep; encompasses all sleep stages except for REM sleep.

REM sleep

rapid eye movement sleep; a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur.

NREM 1

• transition between wake and sleep

• 1-5 minutes, 25% of sleep

• theta waves

NREM 2

• “Baseline”

• part of 90 minutes cycle 45-60% of sleep

NREM 3

• Delta waves

• 15-30 min

• deepest, brain activity slows

REM rebound

the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation.

somatosensory cortex

area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations.

motor cortex

an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements.

primary visual cortex

a region in the brain responsible for processing visual information; in the occipital lobe at the back of the brain

brocas area

a region in the frontal lobe of the brain that is responsible for speech production and language processing. Damage can result in aphasia, (difficulty in speaking and forming coherent sentences)

Wernickes area

associated with language comprehension; located in the left hemisphere of the brain; lower part of the superior temporal lobe; Damage can result in aphasia, where individuals have difficulty understanding and producing meaningful speech.

limbic system

neural system (including the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus) located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives.

pons

a part of the brainstem, located above the medulla and below the midbrain; relaying signals between different areas of the brain; involved in various functions such as sleep, respiration, and facial movement.

Medulla

the base of the brainstem; controls heart-beat and breathing

Synapses

the spaces between neurons that allow for communication in the nervous system. They transmit signals in the form of chemical or electrical impulses.

Dendrites

a neuron's bushy, branching extensions that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body.

Somas

also known as cell bodies; the main part of a neuron where the nucleus and other organelles are located; receiving, integrating, and transmitting signals within the nervous system.

Axons

long, slender projections of a neuron that transmit electrical impulses away from the cell body to other neurons, muscles, or glands; covered by myelin; communication between different parts of the nervous system.

Axon terminal branches

the small branches at the end of an axon that form synapses with other neurons or target cells; transmitting signals from the neuron to the target cells, such as other neurons, muscles, or glands.

Hippocampus

seahorse shaped brain structure; neural system located in the limbic system; helps process for storage explicit (conscious) memories of facts and events

right hemisphere

• perceptual tasks- increase activity (brain waves, blood flow, glucose consumption (left arm and field of vision)

• making inferences

• modulates speech (makes meaning clear)

• orchestrate self-awareness

left hemisphere

speaking or math- increase activity (right arm, right field of vision)

Reticular formation

a nerve network that travels through the brainstem and thalamus and plays an important role in controlling arousal.

thalamus

the brain's sensory control center, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla.

parasympathetic NS

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy.

sympathetic NS

the division of the autonomic NS that arouses the body, mobilizing it’s energy in stressful situations; consumes energy

Somantic NS

the division of the peripheral NS that control the body’s skeletal muscles

autonomic NS (ANS)

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms.

peripheral NS

sensory and motor neurons that connect the CNS to the rest of the body (somantic and automatic)

Central NS

brain and spinal chord

Synesthesia

in some individuals, the brain circuits for 2 or more senses become joined; the stimulation of one sense (such as hearing sound) triggers an experience of another (seeing a color)

Absolute threshold

the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time; Gustav Fechner

Difference threshold

the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time. We experience the difference threshold as a just noticeable difference (or jnd).

Amplitude

Height of a wave; Loudness; The maximum distance the wave moves up or down from its rest position.