Cognitive Psych Ch 9-12 Review

Prototypes

• the most typical or "best" example of a category, representing the average features associated with that category. 

  • For example, a robin might be considered a prototype for the category "bird" because it possesses many typical bird-like qualities (feathers, ability to fly, etc.) that people commonly associate with birds

Exemplars

• specific examples or instances of a category that people have encountered in the past. Instead of a single "best" example (as in prototypes), this categorization relies on a collection of real-world examples stored in memory 

  • For example, when someone thinks about the category "bird," they may recall specific birds they've seen (e.g., a robin, a sparrow, a penguin)

Family Resemblance

• suggests that category members are related not through a single common feature but through a series of overlapping features, like a family where members share certain physical traits but not all members have the same traits.

  • For example, not all birds fly, have feathers, or lay eggs, but they share enough overlapping characteristics that they’re still recognized as "bird-like." 

Typicality ratings

•  measure how "typical" or representative a given example is within a category. People rate items on a scale to indicate how well they fit as members of a certain category.

  • For instance, a robin might receive a high typicality rating as a bird, while an ostrich might receive a lower typicality rating because it has fewer "bird-like" qualities- doesn’t fly 

Graded membership

• refers to the concept that not all members of a category are viewed as equally representative of that category. Instead, category membership can be "graded" or gradual, meaning some items are seen as better examples than others.

  • For example, in the category "furniture," a chair might have a stronger graded membership than a rug

Judgment rating

• involve evaluating items based on criteria such as similarity to a prototype, fit within a category, or other relevant characteristics. These ratings can measure aspects like familiarity, frequency, or perceived "goodness" of category fit, depending on what’s being studied.

  • For example, people might give judgment ratings on how similar various types of fish are to a "typical fish" prototype, or how "well" an unusual bird like a penguin fits into the category of birds.

basic-level category

• a level of categorization within a conceptual hierarchy where people naturally tend to identify and name objects, representing the most common and easily recognizable level of a concept

Basic level

level where info is most easily recognized and named (chair)

superordinate level

info here in this level is very general and abstract (furniture)

subordinate level

info in this level is most specific to an object - includes color, brand, or specific features (office chair)

Anomia

a type of language impairment, often associated with brain damage, that specifically affects the ability to retrieve words for objects or concepts, despite knowing what the object or concept is. 

embodied concepts

 Refer to the idea that our understanding of concepts is deeply rooted in our bodily experiences and sensory-motor systems

hub and spoke model

a theory in cognitive neuroscience that explains how concepts are represented in the brain. According to this model, conceptual knowledge is organized through two main components:

1. Spokes: These are modality-specific regions (e.g., sensory and motor areas) where sensory and perceptual information about an object is stored, such as its color, shape, or function. These regions help encode specific features of concepts (like the taste of an apple or the sound of a bell).

2. Hub: This is a central, modality-independent region where abstracted and generalized information about a concept is integrated. Research suggests that this "hub" is likely located in the anterior temporal lobe (ATL), which connects and synthesizes information from various spokes, allowing for the unified and flexible use of concepts.

Distributed processing

idea that concepts are represented across multiple interconnected regions of the brain, rather than being stored in a single location. Each region processes specific features or aspects of a concept, and together they form a network that represents the entire concept.

language

is a complex system of communication that allows humans to convey information, express thoughts, share emotions, and engage in social interactions

Phoneme

 smallest unit of sound that distinguishes one word from another in language.ex “c” and “b” are different phonemes as in the words “cat” and “bat”

Morpheme

smallest unit of meaning in a word or linguistic expression

Can be whole words, parts of words or single letters. For example the word “cats” has two morphemes, “cat” and the plural morpheme “s”

Speech segmentation

process of identifying boundaries between words syllables, or phonemes in spoken language 

Categorical perception

a phenomenon that occurs when people perceive items as more similar to each other if they belong to the same category, and less similar if they belong to diff categories

sentence parsing

 is the process of analyzing a sentence to determine its meaning by breaking down into its component parts and explaining their relationships

syntax

refers to the set of rules, principles, and processes that govern the structure of sentences in a language, specifically the arrangement of words and phrases to create well-formed sentences.

Descriptive rules

are observations about how language is used by speakers in real-life contexts

Prescriptive rules

norms or guidelines that dictate how language should be used according to traditional standards of grammar, style, and usage

pragmatic rules

he guidelines that govern how language is used in social contexts, focusing on the meaning and intent behind words rather than just their literal interpretation

prosody

The rhythm, melody and intonation of speech which includes variations in pitch, loudness, tempo and rhythm, It helps in understanding speech by providing extra cues to help interpret a message, convey social nuances such as indication of politeness, assertiveness, uncertainty, can signal turn-taking

Brocas aphasia

leaves you with limited language. Might only be able to say single words or very short sentences 

Wernicke’s aphasia

language disorder that makes it hard for you to understand words and communicate

Linguistic relativity

 the idea that the language a person speaks influences how they think and perceive the world

Availability heuristic 

Relies on availability as a substitute for frequency

Representativeness heuristic 

involves making judgments about the probability of an event or category membership based on how much it resembles (or represents) a typical example. It often leads people to ignore relevant base rates (the actual statistical likelihood) in favor of how "typical" something seems.

• Example: If someone is quiet and analytical, you might assume they're more likely to be a librarian than a salesperson because they resemble a stereotypical librarian. However, there are far more salespeople than librarians in the population, so statistically, it's more likely they are a salesperson.

Covariation

the extent to which two or more variables change together, meaning when one variable increases or decreases, the other tends to do the same

Base-rate information

refers to the statistical information about the frequency or probability of an event or characteristic within a given population

diagnostic information

Diagnostic information refers to specific details or evidence that helps determine whether a particular hypothesis or category applies to a case, event, or condition

dual-process model

a framework in psychology and cognitive science that explains two different ways the human brain processes information and makes decisions. According to this model, people use two distinct types of thinking: System 1 (fast, automatic) and System 2 (slow, deliberate).

Type 1 thinking 

thinking fast or automatic thinking

Type 2 thinking

Slower; effortful thinking