American Government Ch. 8, 15, and 16.

In the 2012 Wisconsin gubernatorial recall election, why did the FCC decline to intervene?

The FCC declared the equal-time rule applied only to the actual candidates, and that the 2012 case was an instance of the now-dead fairness doctrine.

What was the key reason newspapers became politically partisan during the party press era?

The publication of the Federalist Papers, as well as the Anti-Federalist Papers, in the 1780s, moved the nation into the party press era, in which partisanship and political party loyalty dominated the choice of editorial content.

What was the impact of the Stamp Tax of 1765 on early colonial newspapers?

It raised costs for publishers, however, leading several newspapers to fold under the increased cost of paper.

Why was Boston an ideal location for the first continuous newspaper in the colonies?

High literacy rates and a desire for self-government.

How did President Franklin D. Roosevelt use radio to connect with the American public?

Through his Fireside Chats to directly connect with the American public and explain his policies and the national situation during the Great Depression and World War II.

What was the main purpose of the Radio Act of 1927?

Establish federal regulation of radio broadcasting, including the creation of the Federal Radio Commission (FRC).

What was the political impact of the first televised presidential debate in 1960?

It fundamentally altered the landscape of presidential campaigning in the United States.

agenda setting

the media's ability to choose which issues or topics get attention

beat

the coverage area assigned to journalists for news or stories

citizen journalism

video and print news posted to the Internet or social media by citizens rather than the news media

cultivation theory

the idea that media affect a citizen's worldview through the information presented

Digital paywall

the need for a paid subscription to access published online material

Equal-Time Rule

an FCC policy that all candidates running for office must be given the same radio and television airtime opportunities

fairness doctrine

a 1949 Federal Communications Commission (FCC) policy, now defunct, that required holders of broadcast licenses to cover controversial issues in a balanced manner

Framing

the process of giving a news story a specific context or background

Freedom of Information Act (FOIA)

a federal statute that requires public agencies to provide certain types of information requested by citizens

Hypodermic Theory

the idea that information is placed in a citizen's brain and accepted

Indecency Regulations

laws that limit indecent and obscene material on public airwaves

Libel

printed information about a person or organization that is not true and harms the reputation of the person or organization

Mass Media

the collection of all media forms that communicate information to the general public

Minimal Effects Theory

the idea that the media have little effect on citizens

Muckraking

news coverage focusing on exposing corrupt business and government practices

Party Press Era

period during the 1780s in which newspaper content was biased by political partisanship

priming

the process of predisposing readers or viewers to think a particular way

prior restraint

a government action that stops someone from doing something before they are able to do it (e.g., forbidding someone to publish a book he or she plans to release)

public relations

biased communication intended to improve the image of people, companies, or organizations

Reporter's Privilege

the right of a journalist to keep a source confidential

Slander

spoken information about a person or organization that is not true and harms the reputation of the person or organization

Soft News

news presented in an entertaining style

Sunshine Laws

laws that require government documents and proceedings to be made public

yellow journalism

sensationalized coverage of scandals and human interest stories

8.1 What Is the Media?

The media encompass all communications that transmit facts or information to citizens and includes the mass media in print and on the radio, television, and Internet. Television takes many forms, such as local, network, cable, or satellite. Historically, programming was transmitted from networks to local stations and broadcast via the airwaves, while fiber-optic cables now allow for national programming to transmit directly. Technological advances allow on-demand and streaming access for programming, leading to changes in advertising and scheduling practices. Conglomerates are large media corporations that own many stations and other companies; therefore, they can create a monopoly and decrease the flow of information to the public. The media serves to entertain the public, watch for corruption, set the national agenda, and promote the public good. In each of these roles, the media informs the public about what is happening and signals when citizens should act.

8.2 The Evolution of the Media

Newspapers were vital during the Revolutionary War. Later, in the party press era, party loyalty governed coverage. At the turn of the twentieth century, investigative journalism and muckraking appeared, and newspapers began presenting more professional, unbiased information. The modern print media have fought to stay relevant and cost-efficient, moving online to do so. Most families had radios by the 1930s, making it an effective way for politicians, especially presidents, to reach out to citizens. While the increased use of television decreased the popularity of radio, talk radio still provides political information. Modern presidents also use television to rally people in times of crisis, although social media and the Internet now offer a more direct way for them to communicate. While serious newscasts still exist, younger viewers prefer soft news as a way to become informed.

8.3 Regulating the Media

While freedom of the press is an important aspect of the Bill of Rights, this freedom is not absolute and may be regulated by the U.S. government. The press cannot libel or slander individuals or publish information about troop movements or undercover operatives. The Federal Communications Commission can enforce limits on television and radio programming by fining or revoking licenses. Broadcast material cannot be obscene, and indecent programs can be broadcast only between 10 p.m. and 6 a.m. Stations must also give political candidates equal time for advertising and interviews. The media helps governments maintain transparency. Sunshine laws require some governments and government agencies to make meeting documents public. Some presidents have encouraged journalists and allowed questioning while others have avoided the press. Lack of openness by government officials leads journalists to use confidential sources for important or classified information. The Supreme Court does not give the press complete freedom to keep sources confidential, though the government can choose whom it prosecutes for hiding sources.

8.4 The Impact of the Media

Writers began to formally study media bias in the 1920s. Initially, the press was seen as being able to place information in our minds, but later research found that the media have a minimal effect on recipients. A more recent theory is that the media cultivates our reality by presenting information that creates our perceptions of the world. The media does have the ability to frame what it presents, and it can also prime citizens to think a particular way, which changes how they react to new information. The media's coverage of electoral candidates has increasingly become analysis rather than reporting. Sound bites from candidates are shorter. The press now provides horse-race coverage on the campaigns rather than in-depth coverage on candidates and their positions, forcing voters to look for other sources, like social media, for information. Current coverage of the government focuses more on what the president does than on presidential policies. Congress, on the other hand, is rarely affected by the media. Most topics discussed by the media are already being discussed by members of Congress or its committees.The media frame discussions and choose pictures, information, and video to support stories, which may affect the way people vote on social policy and in elections.

A local station that broadcasts national network programming is called a(an) station.

affiliate

Cable programming is often _____.

national

A conglomerate is a corporation that ____.

owns many businesses and media networks

When acting as an agenda setter, the media ____.

decides which issues deserve public attention

How can conglomerates censor information?

Setting policies that affect all organizations and networks within the corporation.

In what ways is media responsible for promoting the public good?

offering a platform for public debate and improving citizen awareness

Why is social media an effective way to spread news and information?

It allow citizens and businesses to quickly forward information and news to large groups of friends and followers.

Newspapers during the Revolutionary War period tended to _____.

unite the colonists and provide informationabout the British

Muckraking occurs when newspapers _____.

investigate problems in government and business

Radio quiz shows and comedy shows were most popular in the _____.

1930s

Television news became a regular feature during due to the _____ and public's demand for _____ to explain current events.

WWII; images and maps

How have modern presidents used television to reach out to citizens?

The State of the Union address and "rally 'round the flag" speeches help explain policies and offer comfort after crises.

Why is soft news good at reaching out and educating viewers?

It represents news in an entertaining and approachable manner, painlessly introducing a variety of topic

In which circumstance would the courts find libel?

A reporter uses a source that incorrectly states a celebrity is using drugs.

The Supreme Court determined that the right of the press to print classified material .

is partial, and the press may print classifiedmaterial only if it does not compromisetroops or covert operatives

The Federal Communications Commission oversees the programming of which entities?

television, radio, satellite, and cable

Which of the following is a reasonable exception to the Freedom of Information Act?

medical records for government employees

Why is it a potential problem that the equal-time rule does not apply to candidates' supporters?

Supporters can act as advertisements, raise donations, and ask for volunteers to help a campaign.

Under what circumstances might a journalist be compelled to give up a source?

If required by the Supreme Court in matters of national security where the information is deemed crucial to preventing imminent harm.

Which of the following is an example of episodic framing?

a story on drug abuse that interviews addicts and discusses reasons for addiction and government responses to help addicts

According to research, why might a woman decide not to run for office?

She fears the media will criticize her family

Media coverage of a race tends to ____.

overrepresent African Americans as poor

How might framing or priming affect the way a reader or viewer thinks about an issue?

It can be used to establish a particular tone or perspective on an issue.

Why would inaccurate coverage of race and gender affect policy or elections?

It affects the way we vote and the policies we support depending on if we are presented the reality or not.

In what ways can the media change the way a citizen thinks about government?

By setting the public agenda, framing issues in particular ways, and priming citizens to evaluate government officials or policies based on specific topics the media highlights.

In what ways do the media protect people from a tyrannical government?

By investigating and publicizing government abuses, providing a platform for dissenting voices, and fostering transparency, the media act as a watchdog and help hold leaders accountable to the public.

Should all activities of the government be open to media coverage? Why or why not? In what circumstances do you think it would be appropriate for the government to operate without transparency?

Whether all activities of the government should be open to media coverage is a subject of debate. Proponents of transparency argue that open government allows for greater accountability and prevents corruption, while opponents argue that there are certain sensitive documents and policies that need to be kept confidential for the sake of national security or effective policymaking.

In some cases, complete openness may be necessary to ensure that government officials are acting in the best interests of the public. For example, media coverage can play a crucial role in exposing government corruption or abuse of power. By shining a light on government activities, the media acts as a watchdog, holding officials accountable and safeguarding democracy.

However, there are also circumstances in which it may be appropriate for the government to operate without complete transparency. For instance, in matters of national security or intelligence gathering, keeping certain information confidential can be essential to protecting the country and its citizens. Balancing the need for transparency with the need for confidentiality is a complex challenge.

Have changes in media formats created a more accurate, less biased media? Why or why not?

While transparency is generally vital for democracy and accountability, it is sometimes justified for the government to operate without full media coverage—such as in matters of national security,

How does citizen journalism use social media to increase coverage of world events?

By enabling ordinary individuals to instantly share firsthand information, photos, and videos from remote or rapidly changing locations, social media allows citizen journalists to report on events as they unfold—often providing diverse perspectives and real-time updates that traditional media might miss.

whistleblower

a person who publicizes misdeeds committed within a bureaucracy or other organization

spoils system

a system that rewards political loyalties or party support during elections with bureaucratic appointments after victory

red tape

the mechanisms, procedures, and rules that must be followed to get something done

public administration

the implementation of public policy as well as the academic study that prepares civil servants to work in government

privatization

measures that incorporate the market forces of the private sector into the function of government to varying degrees

pay schedule

a chart that shows salary ranges for different levels of positions vertically and for different ranks of seniority horizontally

patronage

the use of government positions to reward individuals for their political support

negotiated rulemaking

a rulemaking process in which neutral advisors convene a committee of those who have vested interests in the proposed rules and help the committee reach a consensus on them

merit system

a system of filling civil service positions by using competitive examinations to value experience and competence over political loyalties

government corporation

a corporation that fulfills an important public interest and is therefore overseen by government authorities to a much larger degree than private businesses

civil servants

the individuals who fill nonelected positions in government and make up the bureaucracy; also known as bureaucrats

bureaucrats

the civil servants or political appointees who fill nonelected positions in government and make up the bureaucracy, for example Tax collectors, government accountants, police officers, fire fighters, and military personnel, FBI, IRS, FCC, and CIA, USPS worker.

bureaucracy

an administrative group of nonelected officials charged with carrying out functions connected to a series of policies and programs

15.1 Bureaucracy and the Evolution of Public Administration

During the post-Jacksonian era of the nineteenth century, the common charge against the bureaucracy was that it was overly political and corrupt. This changed in the 1880s as the United States began to create a modern civil service. The civil service grew once again in Franklin D. Roosevelt’s administration as hecexpanded government programs to combat the effects of the Great Depression. The most recent criticisms ofcthe federal bureaucracy, notably under Ronald Reagan, emerged following the second great expansion of thecfederal government under Lyndon B Johnson in the 1960s.

15.2 Toward a Merit-Based Civil Service

The merit-based system of filling jobs in the government bureaucracy elevates ability and accountability over political loyalties. Unfortunately, this system also has its downsides. The most common complaint is that the bureaucrats are no longer as responsive to elected public officials as they once had been. This, however, may be a necessary tradeoff for the level of efficiency and specialization necessary in the modern world.

15.3 Understanding Bureaucracies and their Types

To understand why some bureaucracies act the way they do, sociologists have developed a handful of models. With the exception of the ideal bureaucracy described by Max Weber, these models see bureaucracies as self-serving. Harnessing self-serving instincts to make the bureaucracy work the way it was intended is a constant task for elected officials. One of the ways elected officials have tried to grapple with this problem is by designing different types of bureaucracies with different functions. These types include cabinet departments, independent regulatory agencies, independent executive agencies, and government corporations.

15.4 Controlling the Bureaucracy

To reduce the intra-institutional disagreements the traditional rulemaking process seemed to bring, the negotiated rulemaking process was designed to encourage consensus. Both Congress and the president exercise direct oversight over the bureaucracy by holding hearings, making appointments, and setting budget allowances. Citizens exercise their oversight powers through their use of the Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) and by voting. Finally, bureaucrats also exercise oversight over their own institutions by using the channels carved out for whistleblowers to call attention to bureaucratic abuses.

During George Washington's administration, there were ________ cabinet positions.

four

The "spoils system" allocated political appointments on the basis of ________.

party loyalty

Two recent periods of large-scale bureaucratic expansion were ________.

1930s and the 1960s

Briefly explain the underlying reason for the emergence of the spoils system.

The desire of political parties to consolidate power and reward loyalty, along with the belief in democratic rotation in office.

The Civil Service Commission was created by
the ________. And marked the beginning of a shift away from the spoils system in the United States.

Pendleton Act of 1883

The Civil Service Reform Act of 1978 created
the Office of Personnel Management and the
________.

Merit Systems Protection Board

Briefly explain the benefits and drawbacks of a merit system.

Benefit: Ensures the most qualified applicants are chosen; Drawback: Bureaucracy is less responsive to elected leaders

Which describes the ideal bureaucracy according to Max Weber?

An apolitical, hierarchically, organized agency

Which of the following models of bureaucracy best accounts for the way bureaucracies tend to push Congress for more funding each year?

the acquisitive model

An example of a government corporation is
________.

Amtrak

Briefly explain why government might create a government corporation.

To create government corporations to perform services that respond to market forces but are too important to the public to be allowed to fail.

The Freedom of Information Act of 1966 helps citizens exercise oversight over the bureaucracy by ________.

opening government records to citizen scrutiny

When reformers speak of bureaucratic privatization, they mean all the following processes except ________.

whistleblowing

Briefly explain the advantages of negotiated rulemaking.

It reduces conflict and increases acceptance of rules among affected parties

What concerns might arise when Congress delegates decision-making authority to unelected leaders, sometimes called the fourth branch of government?

The possibility that the Supreme Court will directly appoint agency heads

In what ways might the patronage system be made more efficient?

Establishing transparent criteria and digital tracking for appointments and resource allocations, reducing favoritism and bottlenecks

Does the use of bureaucratic oversight staff by Congress and by the OMB constitute unnecessary duplication? Why or why not?

No, because Congress and the OMB have distinct oversight roles: Congress provides legislative oversight to ensure executive accountability, while the OMB oversees budget implementation and management within the executive branch.

Which model of bureaucracy best explains the way the government currently operates? Why?

The Weberian model; because it views the bureaucracy as a rational, hierarchical organization governed by formal rules and procedures, which reflects the structured nature of most government agencies.

Do you think Congress and the president have done enough to protect bureaucratic whistleblowers? Why or why not?

No, because although some legal protections exist, whistleblowers still face risks of retaliation, limited support, and difficulties in having their concerns addressed.