Psychology

social psychology

how we view and affect one another

attribution error

we make mistakes when we try to explain others actions

1.) fundamental attribution error

we tend to blame the person rather than the environment when explaining a persons behavior.

-Saliency bias

it is a reason for the fundamental attribution error
we focus more on the person rather than the environment.

e.g.

westerns are more likely to make FAE because of their cultural belief that people are responsible for their own actions (individualism) while easterners are less likely because their culture focuses on on group belongingness (collectivism)

2.) self-serving bias

we tend to make excuses (blame others/environment) for our failures and accept credit for our successes.

-False consensus effect

we tend to overestimate how common our opinions and our failures are.

-false uniqueness effect

we tend to underestimate how common our abilities and successes are.

-spotlight effect

we tend to think our behaviors are more important to others than they really are.

reasons for self-serving bias

we want to protect our self-esteem, prevent felling vulnerable, and look good in front of others.

Facts

self-serving bias is less likely in eastern countries because of cultural emphasis on group rather than individual success.

what is attitude

attitudes are judgments learned from direct experience or observation

three components of attitude

Affect: emotional response
Behavior: take action
Cognition: thoughts and beliefs

e.g.

you THINK someone is mean, you FEEL dislike for the person, and you ACT unfriendly

What changed/affects your attitude

persuasion: speakers factual/ analytical information and speakers attractiveness.

your actions: foot in the door phenomenon- people who agree to smaller request comply to a larger one later.

when you role-play: standard prison study and joker.

Why do our actions affect our attitudes

we have anxiety when our attitudes and actions don't line up- cognitive dissonance
so we relieve this anxiety by bringing our attitudes in line with our actions (rationalizing).

what is prejudice

prejudgment, preconceived ideas about gender, race, age, ect.

what is discrimination

acting on the prejudice

causes of prejudice/discrimination

just-world phenomenon- people have the tendency to believe the world is just and therefore people deserve what they get.

learn by watching

blame

categorizing

competition for resources

three components of prejudice

Affect: hostility, fear, envy.
Behavior: discrimination
Cognitive: stereotypes

what are stereotypes

over generalizations about a person or thing.

self-fulfilling prophecy

it is a statement that alters actions and therefore comes true. For example, a person stating “I’m probably going to have a lousy day,” might alter his actions so that such a prediction is fulfilled by his actions.

Attraction

1.) proximity

we like people close to us
-repeated contact with a person increases attraction = mere exposure effect
- if similarity is low, proximity can increase negative feelings

e.g. negative politic ads

2.) physical attractiveness

we like good-looking people

-halo effect = we assign positive characteristics to attractive people e.g. friendly, smart
-women considered more attractive if youthful
-men soncidered more attractive more attractive if mature and finacially secure
-across countries- good looks mean better health and more fertile
-we choose mates with equal attractiveness = matching hypothesis

3.) similarity

we like people similar to us

-similarities e.g. social class, interests, ethnic background.
-similarity is the most important factors in keeping a long-term relationship
-"opposites attract" rule applies to personality traits and not to social class or values.

reward theory of attraction

we will like those whose behaviors is rewarding to us

research has shown

attractive people make a more favourable impression at job interviews

attractive characters are portrayed as morally superior in Hollywood movies

babies prefer attractive faces

self-esteem and happiness are unrelated to attractiveness

Romantic vs companionship love

-RL is short-lived, increases with interference/obstacle e.g. parents disapproval
-CL based on admiration, respect, deep-caring, and love grows stronger with time.
-CL endures with equity (e.g. share chores) and self-disclosure (e.g. reveal feelings)

passionate/romantic love

emotion = physical arousal + cognitive label

self-disclosure

Where did you go to high school?

 

When did you last sing to yourself?

 

When did you last cry in front of another person? by yourself?

Social Influence

we change our behavior in response to real or imagined pressure from others which is known as conformity

chameleon effect

we mimic others expressions

conformity increases when)

in a group of 3 or more

group is unanimous

group members are watching us

our culture strongly encourages respect for social standards

we want approval and acceptance (normative social influence)

we need more information (informational social influence)

we want to match our behavior with the group we admire (reference group)

normative social influence

we want approval and acceptance

informational social influence

we need more information

reference group

we want to match our behavior with the group we admire

obedience

we give in to a command from a person or group

obedience increases when

there is an authority figure

we can’t see the person we’re harming

there is another person doing the same task/no one is disobeying the authority figure

obedience decreases

when we’re told we’ll be held responsible, another person refuses to be obedient

Western cultures more likely to encourage individuality

group influence

social facilitation

we work harder when people are watching

e.g.

we do better on easy tasks and worst on difficult tasks when watched

social loathing

we don't work as hard when were in a group

deindividuation

because we are less conscious, less inhibited, and less personally responsible when we are anonymous in a group

group polarization

the tendency for a group to have more extreme opinions or make decisions that are more extreme than if the group members were alone

group-think

a groups desire to reach an agreement /consensus is more important than thinking critically and creatively.

Being in a large group makes the behavior ‘acceptable’.

Aggression

physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or harm

causes of aggression

genes

-identical vs. fraternal twins -

identical have more similar

temperaments than fraternal


one identical twin has 'violent temper',

other twin admits to having the same


genetic marker: Y chromosone


genetic marker: monoamine oxidase gene =

breaks down neurotransmitters like

dopamine and serotonin


low MO gene carriers gave more hot sauce to

someone when provoked

neural systems/ brain damage

-limbic system (amygdala)

-study of 15 death row inmates showed

-all had severe head injury

-criminals had less activity in frontal lobes

hormones

violent criminals have:

higher than average testosterone

low levels of serotonin

male, young, muscular

lower than average IQ
 

-men become less aggressive with age

as testosterone levels drop


-men's facial width is a predictor

of their aggressiveness and prejudicial attitudes


-high testosterone correlates with irritability,

assertiveness, impulsiveness, and low

tolerance for frustration

alcohol

tends to focus person’s attention

on provocation rather than inhibition

frustration

pain, insults, odors, hot temperatures,

cigarette smoke, etc.


-violent crimes and spousal abuse rates higher

during hotter seasons, months, and days


-just thinking about words related to hot

temperatures increased hostile thoughts

-100 studies show people sometimes imitate

what they have viewed

culture

-higher violence rate families and cultures with

minimal father presence/care

no looting in japan after tsunami because they are taught to have patience

ways to control aggression

lighten up/make a joke about the situation

feel sympathy for the other person

use “I” statements instead of ‘You

Altruism

unselfish care and concern for the welfare of others

bystander effect

we are less likely to help when there are other bystanders

diffusion of responsibility

assume someone else will help

more people watching, less likely to help

we are more likely to help when

are not in a hurry

have just seen someone else be helpful

feel guilty

are happy

live in a small town

person deserves help

person is similar to us

making decisions to help

-notice the incident
-interpret as an emergency
-take the responsibility to help

What factors influence when people will or will not help?

gender, presence of others, and other factors

egoistic model or empathy-altruism applied to the gas video

egoistic model: is when peoples behaviors and actions are motivated by self-interest. we do it to feel good about ourselves and avoid feeling distress and guilt if we don't help.

empathy-altruism: is when we help because we are selfless and motivated by our concern for others. it focuses on empathy for others and makes people focuses on other distress and problems rather than themselves.

rachael helped because he was concerned for the girl and had empathy because if he was in her shoes he would want the same because he was a good person

cults

A cult is a group or movement held together by a shared commitment to a charismatic leader or ideology. It has a belief system that has the answers to all of life's questions and offers a special solution to be gained only by following the leader's rules.

The group is focused on a living leader to whom members seem to display excessively zealous, unquestioning commitment. The group is preoccupied with bringing in new members. The group is preoccupied with making money.