English Language

Define Text

A coherent, self contained unit of discourse, can be spoke or written

Define Sign

A visual language used by deaf individuals

Define Graphology

The writing system of the English Language

Define Phonology

The pronunciation system of a language

Define Lexicon

The vocabulary of a language

Define Grammar

The system of rules governing the construction of sentences

Define Social Variation

How language is effected by society, class, job, heritage, sex, etc

Define Personal variation

An individuals conscious or unconscious choices and preferences that create a unique style

Define Temporal variation

Both the long and short term effects of time on language

Define Regional variation

Geography’s affect on language and formation of regional dialect

Equation for structure of language

Structure= Event (text)+ Transmission (sign, graphology, phonology) and core (lexicon and grammar)

Define lexicon

Comes from the early 17th century then referring to a book containing a selection of words and meanings. Term comes from the Greek lexis ‘word’. Presently means the total stock meaningful units in a language.

Define lexeme

A unit of meaning existing regardless of an inflectional ending

What are the two sources of the Lexicon

Native vocabulary and foreign borrowings

What caused the most significant change of direction in the history of English vocabulary

The Norman invasion because there were about 10,000 new lexemes coming from French and Latin by 1400

The arrival of Christianity brought the influence of…

Latin

The viking invasion brought what to the English language

About 2,000 Scandinavian words

How did the Renaissance affect the English lexicon

It doubled the size of the lexicon due to the drastic increase in classically deprived terms and new ones from science and art

Since 1950 a new wave of borrowings is taking place due to

Growing global languages, flora and fauna, political groups and institutions

What are the three ways a new lexeme is formed

adding an affix, altering their word class, or combining to produce compounds

What are the tree major types of word formation

Affixation, conversion, and compounds

Define prefixes

Occur before the root or stem of a word (about 50 common ones)

True or False: Some suffixes have meanings that change depending on context while others do not.

True: Some can have abstract meaning or difficult to define

What is the difference between suffixes and prefixes

Suffixes usually change a lexemes word class

Define conversion/ function shift

Changes a lexemes world class without affixation

Define back formation

When a shorter word is deprived from a longer word thus cutting off an implied affix

Define nonsense words

Coinages that do not have meaning before achieving currency

Define compounds

A unit of vocabulary that consists of more than one lexical stem

Define nonce words

Words created to fill an immediate need

As language is an art form, people are constantly experimenting with

humor, theology, informal conversation, language of literature to form new neologisms

Define Etymology

The study of lexical history by investigating the origins of individual lexemes and their connection to others and pattern of change

Define arguing etymologically

Referencing a word’s earlier meaning is its true meaning

Define semantic fields

Used by contemporary etymologist to take a broader perspective looking at the relationships between whole sets of lexemes in a specific area of meaning

Define define extension/ generalization

When a lexeme widens its meaning/ term takes on a more general meaning

Define narrowing/ specialization

A lexeme becomes more specialized in meaning

Define amelioration

A lexeme develops a positive sense of approval

Define pejoration or deterioration

A lexeme develops a negative sense of disapproval

Define folk etymology

Lexemes that are interpreted by an entire community wrong, thus taking a new meaning

Define onomastics

The science of studying names

Define anthroponomastics

The study of personal names

Define toponomastics

The study of place names

Define semantic structure

Looks at the network of meaning relationships which bond lexemes together

Define lexical fields

A named area of meaning in which lexemes interrelate and define each other in specific ways

History of the thesaurus

Tracing back to the 16th century schemes for the classification of all human knowledge. This interest fell out of interest until the 19th century when interest in taxonomy became a dominant feature of the age.

Roget’s thesaurus

 Published in 1852 divided the lexicon into six areas- abstract relations, space, the material worlds, the intellect, volition, and sentient/ moral powers. 

Define investigating collocations

Collocational studies look only at lexemes that fall within three or four places on either side of it

Define collocation

Requires for one item to “call up” another, to some extent, in the mind of the native speaker

Define idioms

The meaning cannot be deduced by the individual words meaning, lexemes and the expression are fixed both grammatically and lexically

Define polywords

Short phrases functioning like individual, lexemes can not be split or change meaning

Define Institutionalized expressions

Units of sentence length functioning as separate utterances. Can not be spilt or change meaning

Define gradable antonyms

Adjectives with comparable not to absolute qualities (Large/small, happy/sad, wet/dry)

Define complementary antonyms

Not gradable opposites (single/ married, first/last, alive/dead)

Define incompatibles

Used when we want to exclude one meaning from another

Define catch phrases

A simple phrase that is appealing so people take joy in using it

Define vogue words

Lexemes that take on a fashionable or cult status within language as a whole or among the group

Define slogans

Used to form a forceful, catchy, mind grabbing utterance which rally people. Usually short sentences with strong rhythm

Define graffiti

Originally referred to a drawing or inscription scraped into an ancient wall

Define quotations

A fragment of socially embalmed language that comes from someone else’s words

Define proverbs

A piece of traditional wisdom passed through generations, its effectiveness lies in its directness and simple syntax with easy understanding of images

Define archaisms

A feature of an older state of language while continues to be used while retaining the aura of its past

Define cliches

Emerge when expressions outlive their usefulness

What was the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle

Was complied a century later than Bebe under Alfred the Great and provides a grim catalog of disasters for the Britons

Origins of the name English

The term Old English comes from ‘Engle’ thus deprived from the Celts use, in Old English text the language is referred to as ‘English’ referencing the name of the country as England

Define Celtic Borrowings

Were little influences from Celtic that influenced the language due to violent invasion and some stuck

Define Latin Loans

Latin has had a large influence on English throughout history, including bringing half the new words and concepts

Define Runes

Old English first written in the runic alphabet, around 3rd century AD in northern Europe, Scandinavia, and present day Germany and British Isles. There is no identifiable origin but was found on weapons, jewelry, religious artifacts, monuments and more from the 5th or 6th century AD

Define Early Inscriptions

There are less than 30 clear runic inscriptions in Old English, famous examples come from the Ruthwell Cross and the Franks Casket

Define the Dark Age in English history

Occurred between the arrival of the Anglo-Saxons ad the first Old English manuscript. This age began with the arrival of the Roman missionaries who came to Kent in 597 AD thus creating a boom in Old English manuscripts.

When were many Old English manuscripts burned

During the Viking invasions in the 8th century

Define The Scop’s Tale

The first great narrative poem in English- A heroic tale about a 6th century Scandinavian hero named Beowulf. Includes many Christian prespectives and dramatic undercuts and ironies

How were editorial practices varied in making text consistent

Some scribal error were corrected, others were drawn attention to my parentheses- Necessary due to missing letters from damage or original spelling differences

Sources of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle

Was complied from several sources that different in date and place of origin, it takes the form of a year by year diary with some years having more content that others as it span from the 1-12th century

What were Old English Manuscripts written on

Parchment or vellum- Minuscule script was brought by Irish missionaries

Characteristics of the first manuscripts

Were written in the Roman alphabet, using a half-unical,

What caused differences in spelling

Regional differences and stylistic differences of individual scribes

Evidence used to determine pronunciation

Alphabetical logic, comparative reconstruction, sound changes, educated guesses, poetic evidence

When determining pronunciation define the use of alphabetical logic

Comes from and understanding of the Roman letters and the regional effects on dialect reflected in spelling

When determining pronunciation define the use of comparative reconstruction

Working backwards from later documents, though vowels were the main problem

When determining pronunciation define the use of Poetic evidence

Looking at the way words rhymed together to decipher pronunciation

Why was sentence structure not fixed in Old English

The relationship between the parts of the sentence were signaled by other means (not automatically by location in sentence)

Define an inflected language

A language where the role of the word was determined by its ending (like in Spanish and French)

Define Kennings

Indirectly describes things, allusive and often in compounds. There meanings are not self-evident. Often used to satisfy the need for alliteration or help the metrical structure

Define the effects of Latin on Old English

The first big wave of Latin came with Christian Missionaries from Ireland and Rome, primarily through oral and written and brought Christian and domestic words

Define the effect of Norse

The second large wave of Latin came with the Viking raids on Britain beginning and 787 AD and spanned 200 years. Due to Danes being in power for 25 years there is a notable increase in Danish names in England- many standard words entered the language.

List the recognized dialects in Old English by the 9th Century- Many manuscripts were written in mixed dialects due to being written by monastic copyists and traveled between centers

Northumbrian, Mercian, Kentish

Define The Northumbrian dialect in Old English

Was spoken north of the line between Humber and Mersey rivers. A time of political power in the late 7th century made the north a cultural center with several monasteries. Produced many Old English text including Dream of the Rood

Define the Mercian Old English dialect

Was spoken in the midlands, with very few remaining linguistics due to the destruction caused by the Viking invasions. Its impact is mainly shown by scholars recruited by King Alfred

Define the Kentish Old English dialect

Was spoken in the area of Jutish settlement, mainly in present-day Kent. A few characters from 8 and 9th centuries

Outline Middle English

Runs from the beginning of the 12th century to the middle of the 15th. Manuscripts give an idea of the rapid transitions and decay of Anglo-Saxon traditions overlapping with the emergence of French and Latin literacy

Explain the Rise of French in Old English

Norman French was introduced by invaders, by the start of the 12th century most religious houses were under French control. Though there were many bilingual people aiding in social gaps while English was scarcely used in the new hierarchy for nearly a century

Define the Rise of English in the 12th-15th century

By the end of the 12th century, English was widely used among the upper class and more children were native speakers though government was still in French till 1362 after the 100 year war. English was widespread by 1425

The decay of inflections

The change started in the northern part of the country and spread south with some endings still present in the 12th century though not conveying important meaning,

When do we see a great deal of religious prose writing in English

In the early 13th century

Explain the Poetic Puzzle

There are many gaps in poetry, there are notes of alliteration and other literary devices being used in prose during these dead times- Middle English poetry was heavily influenced by French writing style.

Describe Chaucer’s writing

His writing varied in never before seen linguistic style and provided great evidence to the grammar, vocabulary and punctuation of Medieval times

How did Norman scribes affect spelling

Norman scribes wrote the words they heard in English using their own base of French linguistics

Define New spelling conventions in Middle English

There were new conventions for showing long and short vowels, long vowels started being marked with and extra vowel while short were marked with a double consonant.

Define the French Factor in Middle English Vocabulary

French influence became increasingly evident in English manuscripts of the 13th century, resulting from fields like art, law, medicine, and everyday terms- 70% were nouns

What would happen when a French word integrating when there was already an Anglo-Saxon term

Either one term would triumph and the other would fade away, or they would both be used with slightly different meanings.

What evidence is there for dialect differences in Middle English

Distinctive grammar, vocabulary, spelling in manuscripts, and the alterations of verb endings.