AHVS Test 3 flashcards

When did tomb towers emerge and what were their purpose?

Emerged during the Seljuk period as grave markers for local rulers and notable figures. The height of the tomb tower represented the significance of the person

What were Seljuk caravanserais?

Monumental roadside inns that played a vital role in facilitating trade, travel, and cultural exchange across the many Seljuk territories

What were the key architectural features of Seljuk caravanserais?

Fortified exteriors, central courtyard, two section layout, 4-iwan plan, muqarnas, decorative brickwork

What did Seljuk architecture, especially in Iran and Anatolia, represent?

Seljuk architecture represented a transformative period in Islamic architecture, marked by innovation, cultural adaptation, and monumental scale

What new Architectural Innovations, Building Types, and Materials/Decor did the Seljuks introduce to the Islamic world?

Architectural Innovations: 4-iwan plan, advanced dome construction, Muqarnas

Building Types: Madrasas, Mausoleums, Caravanserais, Tomb Towers

Materials/Decor: Brick construction, stone carving in Anatolia, glazed tilework

What were the regional distinctions between Iranian Seljuk architecture and Anatolian Seljuk architecture?

Iranian: brick-based, focus on mosques/madrasa development, early use of muqarnas and dome engineering

Anatolian: stone-based, eclectic influences (Byzantine, Armenian), and rich in sculptural decoration/tilework

What art styles is Seljuk art notable for mixing together?

Persian, Islamic, and Central Asian-Turkic elements. Artisans in Khurasan began inlaying bronze and brass objects with precious metals like gold, silver, and copper

Decorative motifs seen in metalwork were also adapted into contemporary pottery, showing strong visual and conceptual links between different art forms

What did Seljuk pottery reflect at this time?

Reflected both new technical innovation and refinements of earlier methods. Kashan emerged as a major centre, producing works in lusterware and mina’i techniques

Manuscripts/etc were significant during this era, but no illustrated manuscripts from Seljuk Iran have survived

Which regions, once ruled by the Great Seljuks, saw the rise of successor dynasties with roots in the Seljuk empire?

Khwarazmian Empire: originated from a military slave, appointed governor of Khwarazm by Malik Shah

Sultanate of Rum (Anatolia): Anatolia had been ruled by a Seljuk branch since the late 11th century

What two Turkic dynasties with Seljuk origins governed Jazira?

Artuqids (1102-1409): of Turkmen origin

Zengids (1127-1250): Atabegs Turkic military elite and mamluk officers

What was al-Jazira (or Jazira)? Why was it significant?

A historical region in Upper Mesopotamia, located between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers (the island). It was a major centre for trade, military campaigns, and cultural exchange

What did the Artuqids and Zengids both do to get power?

Claimed legitimacy through ties to the Great Seljuks

What was the Ayyubid Dynasty?

Kurdish dynasty that ruled Egypt and Syria rose to prominence as amirs (Arab rulers) serving the Seljuks. The Ayyubids and Zengids ruled concurrently in different regions

What weakened Seljuk successors? Who replaced them?

Mongol invasions in the 1220s-1230s reshaped Middle Eastern politics and weakened Seljuk successors. Replaced by two new empires:

1. The Ilkhanante in Iran

2. The Mamluk in Egypt and Syria

What dynasties emerged after the fall of the Seljuks?

1. Khwarazmian Empire: ruled Khurasan and Iran

2. Sultanate of Rum: ruled Anatolia

3. Artuqids: ruled Northern Syria and Upper Mesopotamia

4. Zengids: ruled parts of the Levant, Upper Mesopotamia, and Egypt

5. Ayyubids: ruled Egypt, most of Syria, Hijaz, Yemen, Northern Nubia, Tripolitania, and Upper Mesopotamia

What was the Crusader Period? (1095-1291)

When Western European Christian powers launched military campaigns (called Crusades) to take control over the Holy Land, especially Jerusalem, from Muslim dynasties

Mostly concerned the Levantine region and overlaped with the Seljuks of Rum, Artuqids, Zengids, Ayyubids, and early Mamluks

Who were the Seljuks of Anatolia (Sultanate of Rum)

Most prominent Seljuk successor state. Origin traced to 1071 Manzikert victory by Alp Arslan over the Byzantines: Byzantine civil war enabled Turkmen settlement across Anatolia

What/who officially founded the Sultanate of Rum?

In 1081 Suleiman ibn Qutalmish seized Nicaea (Iznik), founding the dynasty

What were some early challenges the Sultanate of Rum faced when first forming?

Their relationship with the Seljuks was tense: rival Turkmen groups posed challenges.

Early rule limited to Western and Central Anatolia: coasts remained under Byzantine control, and the Danishmendids had the East

Why was Anatolia called “Rum?”

Because it was formerly part of the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantine Empire), and the term “Rum” is derived from “Rome)

How did the Seljuks introduce Islamic art/architecture in Anatolia?

Among the first to introduce Islamic art/architecture in Anatolia. As heirs to the Great Seljuks of Iran, the sultans of Rum adopted Perso-Islamic cultural traditions. Largely retained architectural styles, materials, and techniques

Where is the influence of Islamic art evident in Anatolia?

In the construction of: Congregational mosques, madrasas, mausoleums, caravanserais, palaces

How were architectural styles and culture connected in Anatolia?

There was a notable connection between the art and architecture of the Sultanate of Rum and Byzantine traditions in Anatolia, where both cultures coexisted and interacted

Who provides most of what we know about the early period of the Seljuks of Anatolia?

Muslim historiography almost useless, Greek, Armenian, and Syriac writers provide most of what is known about the first Seljuks of Rum

How did Crusader narratives describe the Anatolia region?

They were the earliest to refer to the region using the name “Turcia” which evolved into “Turkey,” associating it with the increasing Turkic population

What was the early political landscape of Anatolia?

Emerging polity operated only basic administrative systems, in comparison to the well-structured states of Iran and Iraq

What indicated weak sovereign authority and underdeveloped state institutions in early Anatolia?

Only few rulers had coins made in their name, there was a near total lack of mosques, relatively small Muslim population

What groups made up the majority of Anatolia after the capital was taken/changed?

Though Konya became the capital after Nicaea fell to the Crusaders, the city remained majority Christian, while the neighbouring countryside was mainly Turkmen nomadic groups

What was the Plate of Bukn al-Dawla Dawud, Anatolia or Caucasus, first half of the 12th century (1114-44)

This rare plate was dedicated to Rukn al-Dawla Dawud b. Sokmen, one of the Artuqid rulers of Hisn Kayfa, a city on the Tigris River in northern Jazira.

It is the only medieval enamel element that features the name of a Muslim ruler

What was the signifiance of Konya?

First known Muslim architectural works (including a mosque, palace, and royal tomb) were all built in Konya: these projects signal a growing Muslim presence and political consolidation

Anatolia became more closely connected to broader Islamic cultural networks

The Seljuks expanded in both eastern and western Anatolia, gaining territory from the Byzantines and the Danishmendids

What was the Seljuk Palace of Konya?

First commissioned during the reign of Sultan Kiliji Arslan II, marked the earliest courtly structure that can be confidently dated to the Sultanate of Rum

Palace’s upper floor had a large iwan with balconies on three sides, overlooking Konya

What artistic techniques/trends were seen in Konya?

Glazed tiles were often used for art/decor and made using refined mina’i techniques, comparable to luxury ceramics produced in Kashan, Iran

Stucco ornamentation reflected artistic influences from across the Seljuk world, and even mirrors developments in Christian territories

How did the Anatolian Seljuks ultimately rise to power? What triggered it?

The death of Tughril III in 1194 ended the Seljuk Sultanate in Iran, which positioned the Anatolian Seljuks as the remaining legitimate successors of the Great Seljuk legacy

By early 1200s, Seljuk control of both the Black Sea and Mediterranean coasts meant long-distance trade

Elite sponsorship led to widespread construction of caravanserais that supported commerce

What is Sultan Han?

Major 13th c. Seljuk caravanserai in Sultanhani Aksaray Province, Turkey: it is one of three monumental caravanserais near Aksaray

How did Anatolia power peak under ‘Ala’ al-Din Kayqubbad I?

1. Military campaigns extended influence into Jazira and far north

2. Despite adopting grand imperial titles, the rulers held stable borders with the Byzantines

What was the end of Sultan ‘Ala’ al-Din Kayqubad I’s reign?

Mongols began expanding into middle east, posing a threat to Antolia

‘Ala’ al-Din arranged to pay tribute to the Mongols, delaying full invasion

But his death marked beginning of weakness and instability

Who was Baba Ishaq?

Claimed he had religious authority and led a large-scale uprising, which destabilized Anatolia for several years, and revealed tensions between the central government and Turkmen tribe groups

What was the outcome of Mongol forces on Anatolia?

Sultan Ghiyath al-Din Kayhusraw II suffered a catastrophic defeat at the hands of Mongol forces. After battle the Seljuks kept nominal rule but were compelled to pay tribute to the Mongol Empire

What was the state of Anatolia after Mongol invasion?

Continued prosperity and was wealthy and flourishing. There were nearly 100 urban centres, abundant mining resources (silver, copper, iron), and a vibrant textile industry exporting goods as far as France and England

How did power shift in Anatolia after the 1250s?

Control passed from the Golden Horde to the Ilkhanid dynasty based in Iran. The Ilkhans needed lots of pastureland to sustain their cavalry forces for ongoing wars against the Mamluks of Syria and Egypt

How did Turkmen tribes respond to the Mongol invasion?

Occupation of pastures pushed Turkmen tribes off their lands, leading to recurrent uprisings against Mongol authority. Driven to the edges of Anatolia beyond Ilkhanid control, Turkmen groups established independent beyliks

How did the Ilkhanids shape Anatolian architecture and culture?

Invested in major architectural projects (mosques, hospitals, madrasas), which reshaped the urban landscape and made it visibly most Islamic

Despite political subordination Anatolia had significant cultural vitality

What marked the end of the sultanante?

Around 1307 last Seljuk sultanate died and the Ilkhanids did not botht he appoint a successor, effectively ending the sultanate without ceremony

What mainly sponsored architectural projects in Anatolia in the Ilkhanid period?

Individuals affiliated with the Seljuk Sultan and those aligned with Ilkhanid rulers

What prolific new political figures stood out after the power shift in Anatolia? What changed when they died?

The powerful Pervane (chief minister) Mu’in al-Din Sulaymen and Sahib ‘Ata Fakhr al-Din ‘Ali. After the death of these two, modest constructions such as mausoleums and zawayas replaced the large foundations, independently financed

What were the cultural exchanges in the art and architecture seen in the Sultanate of Rum?

Possessed a rich legacy of Byzantine and American Christian traditions prior to Seljuk rule, which began to blend with:

1. Central Asian Turkic nomadic artistic and architectural practices

2. Iranian-Islamic visual traditions

3. Northern Mesopotamian cultural elements

4. Crusader artistic and military aesthetics

What was the meaning of the double-headed eagle motif?

Conveyed royal authority, a meaning recognized within and beyond the Seljuk realm

What were the artistic designs of the Gok Medrese (Sahibiyya), Sivas and how did they reflect influences from other cultures?

Carved stonework featured in the madrasa reflects the influence of Armenian architectural traditions, known for their intricate stone carving

Use of brick aligns with building practices common in Iranian/Central Asian architecture

What two Turkic dynasties was Jazira governed by?

Artuqids (1102-1409): of Turkmen origin

Zengids (1127-1250): Atabegs

What is Jazira?

Refers to region historically known al-Jazirah (Arabic for “the island”) bc between two rivers. It was divided into three districts

How was Jazira’s strategic location important in the Middle Ages?

Crossroads linking Iraq, Syria, Anatolia, Armenia, and Iran, making it vital for trade and military campaigns

How was Jazira’s agricultural wealth important in the Middle Ages?

Its fertile plains and river systems made it a major grain-producing area

How was Jazira’s political and military rule important in the Middle Ages?

Under the Umayyads and Abbasids, Jazira was a key province. It was also a recruitment centre for Arab tribes

How was Jazira’s cultural an religious diversity important in the Middle Ages?

The region was home to Christians, Jews, and Sabians alongside Muslims, creating a rich cultural environment

How was Jazira’s art and architecture important in the Middle Ages?

Jazira developed a distinctive artistic style blending Byzantine, Islamic, and local traditions

What was the political landscape of The Artuqids (1102-1409)

Artuqids governed territories that had been part of the Islamic world since 7th. century, but these lands still had a large Christian population.

What Jazirian towns did Artuq’s (Leader of the Artuqids) sons secure?

Hisn Kayfa, Mardin, and Mayyafariqin.

This takeover was accepted bu the Seljuk sultans, who were weakened by civil war

What was the Artuqids’ relationship with the Great Seljuks?

Maintained a nominal allegiance to the Great Seljuks but operated with considerable autonomy

Who was Il Ghazi (ruler of Mardin 1107-1122) and what did he do?

Fought the Franks in Syria at Sultan Muhammad Tapar’s request, often joined campaigns only when personally advantageous. Muhammad Tapar attempted to enforce control over him

How did the Artuqids rise as a regional power by Il-Ghazi’s death in 1122?

Controlled a large portion of the Jazira, participated in campaigns reaching far north and south. Rose as regional force, nominally part of the Great Seljuk Empire, but effectively independent

How did Artuqid territory shift after the Zengids of Monsul rose to power?

Zengids of Mogul rose to power after il-Ghazi’s death in 1122, the Zengids of Mosul rose to power, blocking Artuqid expansion

Artuqids lost significant territory to the Zengids and became their vassals

How did the Artuqid dynasty endure despite power shifts?

By acknowledging the supremacy of whichever power dominated the region:

1. First was the Zengids

2. Then the Ayyubids of Syria

3. Later, the Seljuks of Anatolia

What was the downfall of the Artuqid’s territoryn and power?

Positioned between the Seljuks and Ayyubids, the Artuqids gradually lost most of their lands, and by 1230s during Mongol invasions, their holdings were greatly diminished

How did the Artuqid state retain a strong Turkic identity?

Ruler relied heavily on nomadic Turkmen troops, whose seasonal migrations shaped military planning. Also used tactics like:

1. Using ancient Turkic titles in official inscriptions

2. Maintaining a family-based rule with different branches governing separate towns, rather than centralizing power in one ruler

What was the outcome of the Artuqid state after II-Ghazi’s reign?

It became militarily weak and relatively small. To compensate, Artuqid courts evolved into major centres of artistic production

What was the uprising of Zengids leaders, Zengi?

His father was a former mamluk of Malik Shah who rose to govern Aleppo. Zengi began his career serving various Turkic rulers of Mosul. In 1127 he became governor of Zengid Dynasty

How did Zengi expand power of the Zengids?

Used Mosul as a strategic base to extend authority into Syria and Jazira. He was actively involved in the politics of the Seljuk Sultanate of Iraq and a major power broker

What were Zengi’s most notable achievements against the Crusaders?

The capture of Edessa in 1154, which was catastrophic for the Crusaders and triggered the Second Crusade. He is known as a warrior of Islam but was often depicted negatively

What were the key successes of Zengi’s son, Nur al-Din Mahmud b. Zangi (r. 1146-1174)

Better reputation than his father and continued counter crusades, focusing mainly on consolidating power. Conquered Damascus in 1154 and united Syria under his rule. After his death most of Syria fell to the Ayyubids

What was Nur al-Din (Zengi’s son) Urban Development Program for the Zengids?

Sponsored large-scale construction projects in cities and built: city walls/fortifications, hospitals and mosques, educational institutions, markets