AP BIO UNIT 1.1

What is a hydrogen bond?

When a slightly positive hydrogen atom is bonded to a slightly negative atom creating a weak bond. Several hydrogen bonds are strong.

Where are hydrogen bonds found in water?

Hydrogen bonds are found between water molecules, where the positive hydrogen atoms of one water molecule attract the negative oxygen atoms of neighboring water molecules.

Where are hydrogen bonds found in DNA?

between complementary nucleotide bases

How many hydrogen bonds are found between each complementary base pairing?

There are two hydrogen bonds between adenine and thymine, and three hydrogen bonds between guanine and cytosine.

What is the structure of an amino acid?

A central carbon atom bonded to an amino group, a carboxyl group, a hydrogen atom, and a distinctive side chain (R group) that varies among different amino acids.

What are the three options for an amino acid R group?

Polar, nonpolar, and charged (or ionic) side chains.

For each R group describe the polarity.

Polar R groups are hydrophilic and can form hydrogen bonds, nonpolar R groups are hydrophobic, while charged R groups are either positively or negatively charged, making them highly reactive in biological systems.

What are three properties of water?

Water is polar, has a high specific heat, and exhibits cohesion and adhesion.

How does hydrogen bonding allow for high specific heat, cohesion, and adhesion in water?

Hydrogen bonding among water molecules leads to high specific heat by requiring significant energy to break these bonds, while cohesion results from positive hydrogen atoms bonding with negative oxygen atoms, and adhesion comes from water bonding with other polar substances.

Why is water considered a polar molecule?

It has a bent shape and an unequal distribution of electrons between the hydrogen and oxygen atoms, resulting in a partial positive charge on the hydrogen atoms and a partial negative charge on the oxygen atom.

Using the properties of water, describe how water can move up a capillary tube to move from the roots to the leaves in a plant.

Water's cohesion allows water molecules to stick together, while adhesion enables them to stick to the capillary tube's walls, facilitating movement upward against gravity.

Using the properties of water, explain how a water strider can walk on water.

The high surface tension created by hydrogen bonding among water molecules. This tension allows the insect to distribute its weight over a larger area, preventing it from breaking the surface.

What are the four macromolecules?

Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids.

What are the elements found in a carbohydrate?

Carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.

What are three functions of carbohydrates in living organisms?

Energy storage, structural support, and cell signaling.

What are the elements found in a protein?

Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen.

What are the functional groups found in all amino acids?

Amino group, carboxyl group, hydrogen atom, and R group.

What are three functions of proteins in living organisms?

Catalyze reactions, transport molecules, and provide structural support.

What are the elements found in nucleic acids?

Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus.

What are parts found in all nucleotides?

A phosphate group, a five-carbon sugar, and a nitrogenous base.

What are three functions of nucleic acids in living organisms?

Store genetic information, transmit hereditary information, and assist in protein synthesis.

What are the elements found in a lipid?

Carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.

How are the three different types of lipids different?

Fats (energy storage), phospholipids (cell membranes), and steroids (hormonal functions).

What are three functions of lipids in living organisms?

Energy storage, membrane structure, and signaling.

How does the R group affect the folding of the protein? (include polar and nonpolar R groups)

The R group influences protein folding by determining amino acid interactions; polar R groups tend to form hydrogen bonds and interact with water, promoting a hydrophilic environment, while nonpolar R groups tend to cluster away from water, stabilizing the protein's structure in a hydrophobic core.

Dehydration synthesis

is a chemical reaction that involves the formation of a covalent bond between two molecules by the removal of a water molecule. This process is essential for building larger biomolecules such as proteins and nucleic acids.

Hydrolysis

is a chemical reaction that involves the breaking of a covalent bond in a compound through the addition of water. It is crucial for the breakdown of larger biomolecules into their smaller components.

what kind of bond do carbohydrates have and where is it located

Carbohydrates have glycosidic bonds, which are formed between the hydroxyl groups of monosaccharides.

what type of bond is found between protein monomers and where is it located

Proteins have peptide bonds, which are formed between the amino group of one amino acid and the carboxyl group of another.

what type of bond is found between nucleic acids monomers and where is it located

Nucleic acids have phosphodiester bonds, which are formed between the phosphate group of one nucleotide and the hydroxyl group on the sugar of another.

What is the monomer of a nucleic acid and what are its components?

A nucleotide, which consists of a nitrogenous base (A,T,C,G), a five-carbon sugar(ribose or deoxyribose), and a phosphate group.

Identify the components of a phospholipid?

Phospholipids consist of a glycerol molecule, two fatty acid tails, and a phosphate group.

What type of bond is found in starch?

Starch contains glycosidic bonds, which are formed between the hydroxyl groups of glucose molecules

What type of bond is found in cellulose?

Cellulose contains glycosidic bonds similar to starch, linking glucose units together in a linear chain for structural support in plant cell walls.

Can animals digest starch or cellulose?

Animals can digest starch but not cellulose because starch is broken down by amylase, while cellulose requires specific cellulase enzymes, which animals generally lack.

How does a saturated vs unsaturated fatty acid different?

Saturated fatty acids contain no double bonds between carbon atoms, leading to a straight structure, while unsaturated fatty acids contain one or more double bonds, causing bends in their structure.

How does the level of saturation affect the function of the lipid?

Saturated lipids are typically solid at room temperature, while unsaturated lipids tend to be liquid and more flexible due to kinks caused by double bonds.

Describe how a cytosine to thymine substitution changes the structure and function of DNA.

alters the DNA sequence, potentially changing the codon that codes for a specific amino acid during protein synthesis. This could lead to changes in protein structure and function, affecting the organism's traits.

Describe how a cytosine to guanine substitution changes the structure and function of DNA.

A cytosine to guanine substitution alters the DNA sequence, potentially affecting the codon that codes for a specific amino acid during protein synthesis. This change may result in differences in protein structure and function, impacting the organism's characteristics.

Describe how a deoxyribose to ribose changes the structure and function of a nucleic acid.

RNA is generally more reactive and less stable than DNA, which can impact its function in processes such as protein synthesis and gene expression.

What are the ends of a nucleic acid polymer called and what is found at each end?

the 5' and 3' ends. The 5' end typically has a phosphate group, while the 3' end has a hydroxyl group.

What end of a nucleic acid polymer is e location of the growing nucleic acid strand?

The 3' end

Secondary protein description and bonding

folded structures that form within a polypeptide due to hydrogen bonding between the backbone atoms. The most common types are alpha-helices and beta-pleated sheets.

Tertiary protein description and bonding

3D polypeptide stabilized by the hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds, hydrophobic interactions, and disulfide bridges of the R groups

Quarternary protein description and bonding

Held together by same bonds as tertiary bonds, plus Van DER Waals forces

what are the ends of a protein called and what is found at each end

The ends of a protein are called the N-terminus and C-terminus. The N-terminus has a free amino group, while the C-terminus has a free carboxyl group.

Which end of a protein is the location of the growing polypeptide strand?

The N-terminus, where the amino group is free, is the location of the growing polypeptide strand.

Describe the structure of a steroid.

four fused carbon rings, with various functional groups attached.

What is the structure and function of the ribosome?

Ribosomes are made of ribosomal RNA and proteins. They serve as the site of protein synthesis, translating messenger RNA into polypeptide chains.

How does the structure of the ribosome aid in the function?

The ribosome's structure, composed of two subunits that contain rRNA and proteins, facilitates the binding of mRNA and tRNAs, ensuring accurate translation and efficient protein synthesis.

What are the three types of RNA involved in the structure or function of the ribosome?

mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA

How does the ribosome demonstrate a common ancestry of all known life?

The ribosome's universal presence and similar structure across diverse organisms suggest a shared evolutionary ancestor, highlighting its fundamental role in the biology of all living cells.

What is the structure and function of the rough ER?

The rough endoplasmic reticulum (Rough ER) is characterized by ribosomes attached to its cytoplasmic surface, facilitating the synthesis and processing of proteins destined for secretion or for use in membranes.

How does the structure of the rough ER aid in the function?

The rough ER's ribosomes allow for efficient protein synthesis, while its extensive membrane network aids in the processing and transport of these proteins to their final destinations.

What is the structure and function of the smooth ER?

The smooth endoplasmic reticulum (Smooth ER) lacks ribosomes and is involved in the synthesis of lipids, metabolism of carbohydrates, detoxification of drugs and poisons, and storage of calcium ions.

How does the structure of the smooth ER aid in the function?

The smooth ER's lipid bilayer and enzyme-rich environment facilitate lipid synthesis, drug detoxification, and metabolic processes

What is the relationship between the ribosome and the rough ER?

translates mRNA into polypeptide chains, which are then processed within the rough ER.

What is the structure and function of the Golgi?

The Golgi apparatus is a membrane-bound organelle that modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids for secretion or delivery to other organelles, playing a key role in the cellular transport system.

How does the structure of the Golgi aid in the function?

The Golgi apparatus's stacked membrane structure allows for efficient processing and sorting of proteins and lipids, facilitating their packaging and distribution within the cell.

What is the structure and function of the mitochondria?

Mitochondria are double-membrane-bound organelles known as the "powerhouses" of the cell, responsible for producing ATP through cellular respiration

How does the structure of the mitochondria aid in the function?

The mitochondria's inner membrane is highly folded into structures called cristae, increasing the surface area for ATP production, while the matrix contains enzymes crucial for metabolic processes.

What is the structure and function of the lysosome?

Lysosomes are membrane-bound organelles containing digestive enzymes that break down waste materials and cellular debris

How does the structure of the lysosome aid in the function?

The lysosome's lipid bilayer membrane protects the rest of the cell from the harsh enzymes inside, while the acidic environment optimizes conditions for enzyme activity, facilitating effective breakdown of waste materials.

What is the structure and function of the vacuole?

Vacuoles are membrane-bound sacs within the cell that store nutrients, waste products, and help maintain turgor pressure in plant cells, contributing to overall cell structure and function.

What is the structure and function of a chloroplast?

responsible for photosynthesis by converting light energy into chemical energy in the form of glucose, containing chlorophyll pigments that capture sunlight.