Social Psychology: Self-Esteem, Cognition, and Attitudes

What is self-esteem?

An enduring view of oneself over time.

What does the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale measure?

It assesses self-esteem through 10 items scored from 1-4, with a total score range of 10-40.

What is the midpoint score on the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale indicating a generally positive view of oneself?

25

What are two methods to develop self-esteem?

Self-perception and introspection; social comparison and reflected appraisal.

What is self-serving bias?

The tendency to explain positive and negative events in a way that favors oneself.

What is an example of self-handicapping?

Choosing to take a drug that diminishes performance to blame poor results on the drug.

What does Basking in Reflected Glory (BIRG) mean?

Associating with positive, successful others to enhance one's self-esteem.

What is the concept of Downward Social Comparison?

Comparing oneself to others who are worse off to lessen the impact of threats to one's self-concept.

What does the Just World belief entail?

The belief that good things happen to good people and bad things happen to bad people.

What is unrealistic optimism?

The belief that one has a greater than average likelihood of positive outcomes and a lesser likelihood of negative outcomes.

What are defensive attributions?

Attributions that protect one's self-esteem by blaming victims for their misfortunes.

What is the method used in Beckman's study on self-serving bias?

Student teachers explained a child's performance after the child succeeded or failed.

What were the findings of Walster's Just World belief study?

Participants blamed individuals more for severe consequences than for mild ones.

What is the impact of high self-esteem on social functioning?

High self-esteem is valued, predicts satisfaction, and is associated with happiness and better coping skills.

What is the difference between automatic and controlled thought in social cognition?

Automatic thought is fast and effortless, while controlled thought is slow and effortful.

What is the significance of schemas in social cognition?

Schemas are mental representations that help individuals construct and use information about the social world.

What is the relationship between self-esteem and anxiety according to the buffer hypothesis?

High self-esteem can buffer against anxiety and negative mood in stressful situations.

What is the downside of very high self-esteem?

It is linked to aggression and bullying behavior.

What are the two types of social cognition?

Automatic and controlled.

What is the role of feedback in self-affirmation?

Positive feedback can enhance self-esteem and reduce anxiety.

What is the method used in Payne et al.'s study on race and weapons?

Participants rapidly viewed pairs of pictures of faces followed by objects.

What is the outcome of self-handicapping strategies?

They provide external explanations for failure, protecting self-esteem.

What is the effect of social comparison on self-esteem?

Comparing oneself to others can enhance or diminish self-esteem depending on the context.

What are the two ways to self-handicap?

Creating obstacles to success and having ready-made excuses for failure.

What is the significance of the mean score on the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale in the class?

The mean score was 29.5, indicating a generally positive self-view.

What does cutting off reflected failure (CORF) mean?

Dissociating from negative or unsuccessful others to protect self-esteem.

What was the main finding of the Payne study regarding identification errors?

Participants were more likely to misidentify a tool as a gun when preceded by a black face compared to a white face.

What are schemas?

Schemas are sets of linked attributes about an object.

What type of schema includes categories like 'car' or 'textbook'?

Object schema.

What is a person schema?

A schema that includes attributes related to individuals, such as 'mother' or 'father'.

What is a self schema?

A schema that encompasses an individual's own attitudes and beliefs.

What is a social stereotype?

A schema that generalizes attributes about a social group, such as how librarians are perceived.

What are scripts in the context of schemas?

Scripts are schemas that dictate behaviors in specific contexts, like washing clothes.

How do schemas influence memory?

Schemas can bias memory recall, leading individuals to remember information consistent with their existing schemas.

What was the method used in Carmichael, Hogan, & Walter's study on schemas and memory?

Subjects generated names for ambiguous objects and later redrew them.

What effect did schema activation have in Cohen's study on stereotypes?

Subjects recalled information consistent with the stereotypes of the category assigned to a person in a video.

What was the method used in Higgins, Rhodes, & Jones's study on schemas and judgments?

Subjects were primed with positive or negative words before forming impressions of characters in stories.

What was the result of Bargh, Chen & Burrows's study on schemas and behavior?

Subjects primed with rude words were more likely to interrupt a conversation than those primed with neutral or polite words.

What is the perseverance of activated schemas?

Once activated, schemas resist disconfirming information, making first impressions difficult to change.

What did Loftus & Palmer's study reveal about eyewitness testimony?

Leading questions can bias eyewitness recall, as seen when the verb used influenced speed estimates.

What was the outcome of the study involving preschool children and Sam Stone?

72% of children blamed Sam Stone for damage after being influenced by teachers' suggestions.

What are some methods to reduce eyewitness error in court?

Encouraging witnesses to tell their story in their own words and using sequential lineups.

What is the availability heuristic?

A cognitive shortcut where judgments are made based on how easily information comes to mind.

What did Markus & Schwarz's study demonstrate about assertiveness?

Subjects asked for fewer examples of assertiveness rated themselves as more assertive than those asked for more examples.

What is the representativeness heuristic?

Making judgments based on how typical a stimulus appears to be of its category.

Why do people often not use base rate information in judgments?

They may not know how to use it, it requires effort, or they lack necessary base rate information.

What is the impact of leading or biased questions on eyewitness testimony?

They can lead to significant errors in recall, affecting the reliability of eyewitness accounts.

What does the term 'cognitive heuristics' refer to?

Simple rules or mental shortcuts used for making decisions or inferences quickly.

What is the significance of the interaction between type of error and race of face in the Payne study?

It highlights how racial bias can influence perception and identification in a significant way.

What is the role of schemas in eyewitness testimony?

Schemas can distort memory and influence how witnesses recall events, leading to inaccuracies.

What was the overall conclusion regarding young children and eyewitness testimony?

Young children are more susceptible to memory errors and can easily be influenced by leading questions.

What does the term 'social cognition' encompass?

It includes how we think about, interpret, and remember information about ourselves and others.

What is the Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic?

The use of a number or value as a comparison point (anchor) for making judgments.

What are examples of automatic thinking heuristics?

Availability, Representativeness, and Anchoring heuristics.

What is counterfactual thinking?

A heuristic that involves imagining alternatives to past events, often framed as 'What if?'

What did Davis et al. find about counterfactual thinking?

People who imagined ways to avert tragedy reported more distress after losing a spouse or child.

How does counterfactual thinking affect Olympic medalists?

Silver medalists often feel greater dissatisfaction than bronze medalists because they can imagine how they could have won gold.

What is illusory correlation?

The perception of a relationship where none exists or a stronger relationship than actually exists.

What is the illusion of control?

The belief that uncontrollable events are subject to one's control or are more controllable than they are.

What was the method used in Schaffner's illusion of control study?

Subjects attempted to train a child to arrive at school on time using praise and criticism, leading to false conclusions about effectiveness.

What is attribution in psychology?

Inferring the causes of others' behavior to discover their traits.

What is the difference between internal and external attribution?

Internal attribution attributes behavior to personal factors, while external attribution attributes behavior to situational factors.

What are the two dimensions of Heider and Weiner's attribution model?

Internal/External and Stable/Unstable.

What is the discounting principle in attribution?

The role of a possible cause is reduced when other probable causes are present.

What is the augmentation principle in attribution?

The role of a possible cause is enhanced if the effect occurs in the presence of an inhibitory cause.

What is self-serving attribution?

Attributing successes to internal factors and failures to external factors to protect self-esteem.

What is the fundamental attribution error?

The tendency to underestimate situational influences and overestimate dispositional influences when analyzing others' behavior.

What did Jones & Harris demonstrate regarding the fundamental attribution error?

Observers overestimated dispositional causes when evaluating pro and anti-Castro speeches.

What is Kelley's Covariation model of attribution?

A model that uses three dimensions: Distinctiveness, Consensus, and Consistency to determine causality.

What triggers attributions?

Attributions are often made following unexpected events, unattained goals, negative events, and self-relevant events.

What is the role of consistency in attribution?

High consistency leads to stronger attributions, while low consistency indicates ambiguity.

What is the focus of attention effect in attribution?

Observers attribute behaviors differently based on their perspective, often leading to dispositional attributions for their own behavior.

When is the fundamental attribution error more likely to occur?

When behavior appears freely chosen, is socially undesirable, is made quickly, or has hedonic relevance to the observer.

What is the relationship between partner success and ratings?

Partners are rated more positively when they succeed.

What attribution pattern do individuals with low self-esteem exhibit?

They attribute positive events to external, temporary causes and negative events to internal, lasting causes.

What was the method used in Layden's study on self-esteem?

Subjects kept a journal noting internal reasons for success and external reasons for failure.

What were the results of Layden's study on self-esteem?

Subjects who internalized success and externalized failure showed increased self-esteem and reduced depression symptoms.

What attribution patterns do satisfied couples exhibit?

They make internal attributions for positive behaviors and external attributions for negative behaviors.

What attribution patterns do dissatisfied couples exhibit?

They make external attributions for positive behaviors and internal attributions for negative behaviors.

What is a self-fulfilling prophecy?

It occurs when people's expectations lead them to behave in ways that increase the likelihood of the expected event.

What was the method used in Rosenthal & Lawson's study on self-fulfilling prophecies?

Students were told their rats were either 'bright' or 'dull' and their training methods were observed.

What were the results of Rosenthal & Lawson's study?

Students with 'bright' rats were more persistent and gentle, leading to faster maze navigation.

What was the method used in Rosenthal & Jacobson's study?

Teachers were informed that 20% of students would 'bloom' based on an IQ test, which was randomly assigned.

What were the results of Rosenthal & Jacobson's study?

Bloomers increased their test scores by 13.33 points, while non-bloomers increased by only 9.17 points.

How do teacher expectations influence students?

Teachers treat 'bloomers' more warmly and attempt to teach them more, affecting their performance.

What factors affect the occurrence of self-fulfilling prophecies?

They are more likely in settings with ambiguity or subtle influence, especially with young children.

What was the method used in Snyder, Tanke, & Bercheid's study?

Men received photos of their partners and their interactions were analyzed for friendliness.

What were the results of Snyder, Tanke, & Bercheid's study?

Women whose partners thought they were attractive acted more friendly, influenced by men's expectations.

What was the method used in Snyder & Swann's study on extroversion?

Subjects chose questions to ask based on their expectations of interviewing an introvert or extrovert.

What were the results of Snyder & Swann's study?

The partner's responses were influenced by the type of questions asked, reflecting their expected personality.

What is the definition of attitude?

A positive or negative evaluation of something or someone.

What is the relationship between attitudes and behaviors?

There is often a weak relationship; correlations generally hover around 0.3.

What factors affect attitude-behavior consistency?

Relevance, salience, strength of the attitude, ability to enact the attitude, and social pressure.

How does salience affect behavior?

Being aware of one's beliefs increases the likelihood of acting in alignment with those beliefs.

What was the method in Wicklund & Duval's study on cheating?

Subjects worked on a task in front of a mirror or without, and their cheating behavior was measured.

What were the results of Wicklund & Duval's study?

71% of subjects cheated without a mirror, while only 7% cheated when they could see themselves.

What is the conclusion regarding self-fulfilling prophecies?

They occur but are statistically rare and can be prevented by mindfulness of their impact.

What is the significance of attitude importance in behavior consistency?

Issues that are important to a person generate strong attitude/behavior consistency.

What is the Theory of Planned Action?

It includes social pressure, ability/control, attitude toward the behavior, subjective norms, perceived control, behavior intention, and actual behavior.

What are the components of the Theory of Planned Action?

Attitude toward the behavior, subjective norms, perceived control, behavior intention, and behavior.