Immunology and Excretion

A comprehensive set of 150 flashcards covering primary concepts in immunology, excretion, and related physiological processes for study and review.

Epitope

The specific part of an antigen that is recognized and bound by an antibody or an antigen receptor.

Antigen

A substance that induces an immune response; it is recognized by the immune system.

Antibody

A protein produced by B cells that binds to a specific antigen and helps to neutralize or eliminate it.

Immunoglobulin

Another name for antibodies, which are key components of the immune response.

B Cells

A type of lymphocyte that matures in the bone marrow and is responsible for producing antibodies.

T Cells

A type of lymphocyte that matures in the thymus and plays a key role in cell-mediated immunity.

IgG

The most common type of antibody in circulation, comprising 70-80% of all antibodies.

IgE

An antibody involved in allergic reactions and response to parasitic infections.

IgA

An antibody found in mucosal areas, such as the gut and respiratory tract, and in secretions such as saliva and breast milk.

MHC (Major Histocompatibility Complex)

A set of molecules displayed on cell surfaces that present antigens for recognition by T cells.

APC (Antigen Presenting Cell)

A cell that displays antigen on its surface MHC molecules, helping to activate T cells.

Clonal Selection

The process by which specific B or T cells are selected and proliferate in response to an antigen.

Effector Cells

Activated immune cells that carry out the immune response, such as cytotoxic T cells or plasma cells.

Memory Cells

Long-lived immune cells that remember past infections and respond more rapidly upon re-exposure to the same pathogen.

Helper T Cells

T cells that activate B cells and cytotoxic T cells by releasing cytokines.

Cytotoxic T Cells

T cells capable of directly killing infected or cancerous cells.

Primary Immune Response

The body's first response to an antigen, characterized by the activation of naive lymphocytes.

Secondary Immune Response

A faster and stronger immune response upon subsequent exposure to an antigen, due to memory cells.

Neutralization

The process by which antibodies bind to pathogens and prevent them from entering or damaging host cells.

Opsonization

The marking of pathogens by antibodies for destruction by phagocytes.

Complement System

A group of proteins that assist in the destruction of pathogens through various mechanisms.

Perforins

Proteins released by cytotoxic T cells that form pores in infected cells' membranes.

Granzymes

Enzymes that enter target cells through perforin-created pores and induce apoptosis.

Osmoregulation

The process by which animals regulate the concentration of solutes in their body fluids.

Nitrogenous Wastes

Waste products generated from the metabolism of nitrogen-containing compounds.

Ammonia

A toxic nitrogenous waste produced primarily by aquatic animals, requiring a large amount of water for excretion.

Urea

A less toxic nitrogenous waste excreted by mammals, requiring less water than ammonia.

Uric Acid

The least toxic nitrogenous waste that requires minimal water for excretion, mainly produced by birds and reptiles.

Filtration

The first step in kidney function, where blood is filtered to remove waste products.

Reabsorption

The process by which the kidneys reclaim filtered water and solutes back into the bloodstream.

Secretion

The transfer of substances from the blood into the urine, including unwanted materials.

Excretion

The elimination of metabolic wastes from the body, such as urine.

Nephridia

Basic excretory structures found in invertebrates, acting as filtration and excretion units.

Kidneys

The organs responsible for filtering blood, excreting waste, and regulating fluid balance.

Ureters

The tubes that carry urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder.

Urinary Bladder

The organ that stores urine until it is ready to be excreted from the body.

Urethra

The tube through which urine is expelled from the body.

Plasma Cells

Effector B cells that produce large quantities of antibodies.

Cytokines

Small proteins released by cells that have a specific effect on the interactions and communications between cells.

Anaphylactic Shock

A severe allergic reaction that can cause difficulty breathing and a drastic drop in blood pressure.

Autoimmune Disorders

Diseases where the immune system mistakenly attacks the body's own tissues.

Immunodeficiency

A condition where part of the body's immune system is missing or not functioning properly.

Passive Immunity

Immunity acquired through the transfer of antibodies from one individual to another.

Monoclonal Antibodies

Laboratory-made antibodies that are engineered to bind specific antigens.

Vaccination

The process of stimulating an immune response by exposure to a harmless form of an antigen.

Hemagglutinin

A viral protein that allows the virus to bind to host cells.

Bacterial Resistance

The ability of bacteria to withstand the effects of antibiotics or other antimicrobial agents.

Viral Load

The amount of virus present in a given volume of blood.

Pathogen

An organism that causes disease, such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi.

Innate Immunity

The first line of defense against pathogens, which involves barriers and immune responses that are present from birth.

Adaptive Immunity

The immune response that is specific to a particular pathogen and is developed over time.

Vaccine

A preparation that stimulates an immune response to provide immunity against a specific disease.

Cross-Reactivity

The ability of a single antibody or immune response to react with multiple antigens.

Polyclonal Antibodies

Antibodies derived from multiple B cell lineages that recognize different epitopes on the same antigen.

Signal Transduction

The process by which a cell responds to external signals or stimuli.

Tolerization

The induction of unresponsiveness to specific antigens by the immune system.

Dendritic Cells

Antigen-presenting cells that are critical for initiating T cell responses.

Memory B Cells

Long-lived B cells that can quickly respond upon re-exposure to the same antigen.

Pathogen Recognition Receptors

Receptors on immune cells that detect pathogens and activate immune responses.

Antigenic Drift

Small genetic changes in pathogens that occur over time, allowing them to evade the immune system.

Pathogen Clearance

The elimination of pathogens from the body through immune responses.

Cellular Immunity

An immune response that involves the activation of T lymphocytes to attack infected or cancerous cells.

Humoral Immunity

An immune response that involves the production of antibodies by B cells.

Primary Response

The immune response that occurs upon first exposure to an antigen.

Subsequent Exposure

Any later encounters with the same pathogen after the primary response.

Genetic Factors

Inherited traits that may affect an individual’s susceptibility to autoimmune disorders.

Environmental Triggers

External factors that may precipitate autoimmune responses in susceptible individuals.

Clinical Trials

Research studies that test how well new medical approaches work in people.

Immunoassay

A laboratory technique used to measure the presence of antibodies or antigens in a sample.

Pathogen Exposure History

Records of previous encounters with specific pathogens that inform immune response.

Developing Immunity

The process of becoming immune to a disease through exposure to the pathogen or vaccination.

Immune Surveillance

The immune system's continuous monitoring of the body for abnormal cells, such as cancer.

Antigenic Determinants

The specific parts of an antigen that antibodies or T cell receptors bind to.

Serum Antibodies

Antibodies present in the blood serum, indicative of an individual's immune status.

Membrane Attack Complex

A structure formed by complement proteins that can lyse pathogens.

Biological Response Modification

Changing the behavior or biological outcome of a cell or organism through external factors.

Inactivated Virus Vaccine

A vaccine made from viruses that have been killed or inactivated, preventing them from causing disease.

Subunit Vaccine

A vaccine that contains only parts of the virus or bacteria, not the whole pathogen.

Live Attenuated Vaccine

A vaccine using a weakened form of the germ that causes a disease.

DNA Vaccine

A type of vaccine that uses genetically engineered DNA to induce an immune response.

RNA Vaccine

A vaccine that uses messenger RNA to instruct cells to produce a protein that triggers an immune response.

Conjugate Vaccine

A vaccine that joins a weaker antigen to a stronger one to improve the immune response.

Herd Immunity

When a large percentage of a population becomes immune to a disease, providing protection to individuals who are not immune.

Transfusion-related Immunomodulation (TRIM)

Changes to the immune response that occur when blood products are transfused.

Vaccine Hesitancy

The reluctance or refusal to vaccinate despite the availability of vaccines.

Post-exposure Prophylaxis

Preventive treatment initiated after exposure to a pathogen to prevent infection.