Neuroscience - Exam 1

Social Affective Neuroscience

the study of how the mind, brain and behavior interact to process and respond to social and emotional information

Comparative Psychology

comparing human and animal behaviors

Evolution

Genes build brains --> study other animals

Materialism

The mind is what the brain does --> study the brain

Idealism

Brains construct the world --> study subjective experiences

Sociality

The social world shapes brains --> study social behaviors

Emotionality

Emotion is what mattering means --> study emotion

Homologies

shared structures of traits that arise from common evolutionary origins (Examples: dogs use their tails for balance when they run, leopards use their tail for balance when they climb)

Analogies

shared structures or traits that arise from distinct evolutionary origins (Examples: bird/human song, octopi/humans turning red)

Exaptations

different structures or traits that arise from common evolutionary origins (example: elephant trunks)

Ralf Adolf's View Emotion

a central state that is triggered by specific stimuli and encoded by the activity of particular neural circuits that give rise, in a causal sense, to externally observable behaviors, and somatic, physiological, and cognitive responses

Affective circumplex

helps quantify emotional experience (feels bad

James-Lange Theory of Emotion

argued that felt emotion (subjective) is the very last stage of the process and results from observation of our own behaviors (Stimulus -> behavior, somatic & physiological responses -> cognitive responses (humans only))

Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion

emotional stimuli cause bodily/behavioral responses through one pathway and cognitive responses through a different, separate pathway

Emotion Coherence

Describe how tightly together the 3 components (behavior, somatic/physiological, cognitive) came together across time - By disputing the coherence, you can create mental health problems (ex. Limiting emotional expression could increase cognitive response)

Appraisal Model of Emotion

the piece between the stimulus and the emotion - your views on the world/your experiences shape your emotional experience

Interoception

awareness of physiology - internal things (i.e. Heartrate)

Proprioception

awareness of where your body is in space

5 criteria to be A Basic Emotion:

1. Universal or innate

   1. Evident across cultures, species, or from infancy

2. Dedicated brain structures

3. Motivates adaptive behavior

4. Outlasts environmental triggers

5. Linked to conscious processes

Lateral

moving outwards to the sides

Medial

middle point

Superior / Dorsal

moving upwards

Inferior / Ventral

moving downwards

Reptilian Brain

(inside) - oldest

Mammalian Brain

middle

Primate Brain

(outside) - newest

4 Lobes

Frontal, Temporal, Parietal, Occipital

Frontal Gyrus

Motor Strip - output

Parietal Gyrus

Sensory Strip - input

The Bell-Magendie Law

If you stimulate the posterior roots when then haven't been severed you will cause pain, but if you stimulate the posterior roots when they have been severed you will NOT cause pain

Sagittal

from the nose to the back of the head

Coronal

side of head to other side

Axial

flat from font of head to back

Closed Systems

The older systems send more info rather than receive it, inflexible, resistant to change

Open Systems

younger and newer, flexible, dependent on learning & environment

Medulla

inferior to the pons - breathing, swallowing, heartrate, shifting states of consciousness, blinking in response to stimulus

Pons

superior to the Medulla

VTA (ventral tegmental area)

produces dopamine

Superior Colliculi

visual orientation

Inferior Colliculi

auditory orientation

Periaqueductal Gray

lowest integrative center for coherent emotional behaviors (pain, pleasure, fear, rage)

Brain Stem & Midbrain (good for)

breathing, blinking, emotions (sexuality, seeking emotions)

Caudate

the swooping tail - generating and inhibiting intentional movement, procedural learning

Putamen

the large blob connected to the tail - sensorimotor integration and motor control

Nucleus Accumbens

the small piece that connects the Caudate to the Putamen - generates reward seeking behavior following the release of dopamine

Striatum

Caudate, Putamen, Nucleus Accumbens

Globus Pallidus

source of output from the basal ganglia to the thalamus

Lentiform Nucleus

Putamen, Globus Pallidus

Basal Ganglia (good for)

movement

Hippocampus

has the ability to tell us where we are in space, consolidation and recall of episodic memory

Amygdala

located at the end of the caudal tail - regulates emotion, particularly fear and emotional learning

Thalamus

relays information between regions of the cortex and subcortex

Hypothalamus

the four Fs or HEAL - Feeding, Fleeing, Fighting, Mating | Homeostasis (regulating), Endocrine (hormones), Autonomic (sympathetic and parasympathetic), Limbic (emotions)

Cingulate Gyrus

regulating emotion, autonomic and behavioral processes

Limbic System (good for)

competition, maternal nurturing

Soma

middle of neuron that contains all the organelles (ex. Nucleus, mitochondria)

Dendrites

short branches that are extensions of the cytoplasm

Axon

long, single branch

White Matter

collection of axons

Gray Matter

the soma and the dendrites

Neurotransmitter

a chemical used for single neuron to neuron transmission

Neuromodulin

a chemical that effects a larger amount of neurons

Summation

the process that determines whether an action potential will be generated by the combine effects of excitatory and inhibitory signals

Spatial Summation

the summation of many simultaneous inputs from multiple presynaptic neurons

Temporal Summation

the summation of a rapid, repeated inputs from a single presynaptic neuron

Nodes of Ranvier

gaps in the myelin sheath where the sodium and potassium pumps are

Saltatory Conduction

the action potential jumps from one node to the next

Long Term Potentiation

repeated stimulation of a neuron that leads to the strengthening of its connections with adjacent neurons, which can produce a long-lasting increase in signal transmission between neurons - neurons that fire together, wire together

"Mirror Neurons" (Rizzolatti)

fire in response to actions we observe in others in the same manner that they do when we perform the actions ourselves - It is not the actual action but the display of intention that produces the same result

Stereotactic Electroencephalography (sEEG)

utilizes localized deep penetrating electrodes to measure electrophysiological activity - most commonly used to detect epileptic zones

Electrocorticography (ECoG) or Intracranial Electroencephalography (iEEG)

uses electrodes placed directly on the exposed surface of the brain to record electroactivity on the cerebral cortex

Electroencephalography (EEG)

recording of changes in electrical potential across the surface of the scalp (does not have the best spatial resolution) - average across 1,000s or 1,000,000s of neurons
Weaknesses of EEG:

• Difficult to measure subcortical activation

• Poor spatial resolution

• Significance of deflections not always clear

Alpha Waves

detected when the brain is resting or "idling" with eyes closed - low amplitude, high frequency, synchronized

Beta Waves

detected with stimulus, alert - low amplitude, high frequency, desynchronized

Theta Waves

light sleep - low amplitude, fairly low frequency, fairly synchronized

Delta Waves

deep sleep - high amplitude, low frequency, fairly synchronized

Seizure

high amplitude, high frequency, synchronized waves

Event-Related Potentials (ERP)

represent changes or deflections in the wave form in response to something specific - Use EEG to detect

Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

measuring activity throughout the brain by tracking the brain's uptake of radioactive fuel (Injection of glucose - molecules are tagged - the regions of the brain taking the most glucose will admit the strongest, brightest signal)
Weaknesses of PET:

• Subjects exposed to radiation

• Better, but not great, spatial resolution

• Poor temporal resolution

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

measuring activity throughout the brain by assessing how the magnetic properties of blood charge as a function of oxygenation
Weaknesses of fMRI:

• Subjects with magnetic implants or claustrophobia are disqualified

• Subjects cannot move for long periods

• Marginal temporal resolution (but good spatial resolution!)

Brain Contrast

different conditions or groups - what you want to look at when looking at neuroimaging

Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)

Using electromagnetic stimulation similar to MRI to either enhance or inhibit activity in sections of the cortex (Low frequency (I Hz) reduces brain activation | Higher frequencies (> 5Hz) increases brain activity)

Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (TDCS)

uses electrical currents to stimulate specific regions of the brain - Can have activation or inhibition of a brain region depending on whether you apply a positive or negative electrode over the target area

Functional Near-infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS)

uses infrared light to detect light absorption related to blood oxygenation levels in the brain - Mostly capture activity closer to the skull

Neurotransmitters

admitted from vesicles and effect the chances that neuron next door will fire

4 Basic Classes of Neurotransmitters

Amino Acids (glutamate), Biogenic amines (DA, serotonin), Neuropeptides (oxytocin), Miscellaneous (acetylcholine)

Dales Law

most neurons only synthesize one type of neurotransmitter

Optogenetics

the combination of genetics and optics to control well defined events within specific cells of living organisms

Serotonin:

• Derived from tryptophan

• 15 serotonin (5-HT) receptors

• Influences mood, sexual function, appetite, sleep, memory, learning, temperature regulation, social behaviors

• Local influence affected by serotonin transporter genotype

Oxytocin:

• Produced in the hypothalamus

• Promotes social bonding, maternal acceptance

• Reduces anxiety and pain

• Receptor density in the amygdala and nucleus accumbens critical to its behavioral effects

4 most basic emotions according to Panksep

fear, lust, seeking, rage

7 discrete emotions

fear, lust, seeking, rage, joy, care, sadness

Emotion regulation

the ability to manage and respond to emotions in a way that is socially acceptable and flexible

Suprachiasmatic Nuclei (SCN)

the Master Clock, Nuclei of the hypothalamus, Controls circadian rhythms, Sits above the optic chiasm (hence the name), important for homeostasis

Intrinsic Emotion Regulation

regulating one's own emotions (self-regulation)

Implicit Emotion Regulation

absence of any intent or conscious effort - evoked automatically by a stimulus

Explicit Emotion Regulation

requires conscious effort

Extrinsic Emotion Regulation

regulating someone else's emotions (other-regulation)

The hedonic principle

the willingness to behave in a way that enhances positive experience and decreases negative experiences

Nociceptors

specifically transfer information about pain (2 types