*A&P 1 - Objectives 1-4

Anatomy

The study of the structure of body parts and their relationships to one another.

Gross Anatomy

The study of large body structures visible to the naked eye, including regional, systemic, and surface anatomy.

Microscopic Anatomy

The study of structures too small to be seen with the naked eye, including cytology and histology.

Cytology

The microscopic study of cells.

Histology

The microscopic study of tissues.

Developmental Anatomy

The study of structural changes that occur throughout the life span, including embryology.

Embryology

The study of developmental changes that occur before birth.

Physiology

The study of the functions of the body parts or processes of organisms.

Renal Physiology

The study of kidney function.

Cardiovascular Physiology

The study of the heart and blood vessel function.

Lingual

Pertaining to the tongue.

Sublingual

Below the tongue.

Pericarditis

Inflammation of the pericardium (tissue surrounding the heart).

Leukocyte

White blood cell.

Principle of Complementarity of Structure and Function

The concept that function always reflects structure; what a structure can do depends on its specific form, and anatomy and physiology are inseparable.

Chemical Level

The smallest level of structural organization where atoms combine to form molecules.

Cellular Level

The level of structural organization where cells are made up of molecules.

Tissue Level

The level of structural organization where groups of similar cells work together to perform a specific function.

Organ Level

The level of structural organization where a structure contains two or more types of tissues that work together to perform specific complex functions.

Organ System Level

The level of structural organization where organs work closely together to accomplish a common purpose.

Organismal Level

The highest level of structural organization where all organ systems combine to make the whole organism.

Maintaining Boundaries

A necessary life function involving the ability to keep the internal environment separate from the external environment (e.g., plasma membranes, skin).

Movement

A necessary life function including locomotion, movement of substances within the body (e.g., blood, food), and contraction of muscles.

Responsiveness (Irritability)

A necessary life function referring to the ability to sense changes (stimuli) in the environment and respond to them.

Digestion

A necessary life function involving the breakdown of ingested foodstuffs into simple molecules that can be absorbed into the blood.

Metabolism

A necessary life function encompassing all chemical reactions that occur in body cells, including catabolism and anabolism.

Catabolism

The breakdown of complex substances into simpler ones, releasing energy, as part of metabolism.

Anabolism

The building up of complex substances from simpler ones, requiring energy, as part of metabolism.

Excretion

A necessary life function involving the removal of wastes from the body resulting from metabolism and digestion.

Reproduction

A necessary life function involving the production of offspring, and at the cellular level, the division of cells for growth or repair.

Growth

A necessary life function referring to an increase in size of a body part or of the organism as a whole.

Nutrients

A survival need providing chemicals for energy and cell building.

Oxygen

A survival need essential for chemical reactions that release energy from foods.

Water

A survival need accounting for 50-60% of body weight, necessary for chemical reactions and as a solvent.

Normal Body Temperature

A survival need maintained for proper enzyme function and metabolic reactions.

Appropriate Atmospheric Pressure

A survival need required for proper breathing and gas exchange in the lungs.

Organ

A structure composed of at least two tissue types that performs a specific function for the body.

Organ System

A group of organs that cooperate to accomplish a common purpose.

Integumentary System

Forms the external body covering, protects deeper tissues from injury, synthesizes vitamin D, and houses cutaneous receptors, sweat, and oil glands.

Skeletal System

Protects and supports body organs, provides a framework for muscles, forms blood cells within bones, and stores minerals.

Muscular System

Allows manipulation of the environment, locomotion, facial expression, maintains posture, and produces heat.

Nervous System

The fast-acting control system of the body that responds to internal and external changes by activating appropriate muscles and glands.

Endocrine System

Glands secrete hormones that regulate processes such as growth, reproduction, and nutrient use (metabolism) by body cells.

Cardiovascular System

Blood vessels transport blood (carrying oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, wastes, etc.), and the heart pumps blood.

Lymphatic System/Immunity

Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and returns it to blood, disposes of debris, and houses white blood cells involved in immunity, mounting attacks against foreign substances.

Digestive System

Breaks down food into absorbable units that enter the blood for distribution to body cells, eliminating indigestible foodstuffs as feces.

Respiratory System

Keeps blood constantly supplied with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide through gaseous exchanges in the lungs' air sacs.

Urinary System

Eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the body and regulates water, electrolyte, and acid-base balance of the blood.

Male Reproductive System

Produces sperm and male sex hormones, and aids in sperm delivery to the female reproductive tract.

Female Reproductive System

Produces eggs and female sex hormones, serves as sites for fertilization and fetal development, and mammary glands produce milk.

Homeostasis

The maintenance of a relatively constant internal environment despite continuous changes in the external environment; a dynamic state of equilibrium.

Receptor (Sensor)

A component of a homeostatic control mechanism that monitors the environment and responds to stimuli.

Control Center

A component of a homeostatic control mechanism that determines the set point at which a variable is maintained, receives input from the receptor, and determines the appropriate response.

Effector

A component of a homeostatic control mechanism that receives output from the control center and provides the means to respond, either reducing (negative feedback) or enhancing (positive feedback) the stimulus.

Negative Feedback

A homeostatic mechanism where the response reduces or shuts off the original stimulus, causing the variable to change in the opposite direction of the initial change, returning it to its ideal value (e.g., body temperature, blood glucose).

Positive Feedback

A homeostatic mechanism where the response enhances or amplifies the original stimulus, accelerating the change in the same direction as the initial disturbance (e.g., labor contractions, blood clotting).

Homeostatic Imbalance

A disturbance of homeostasis that increases the risk of disease, contributes to changes associated with aging, or where negative feedback mechanisms are overwhelmed.

Hiatal Hernia

A condition where a part of the stomach protrudes through the diaphragm into the thoracic cavity.

Serous Membrane

Thin, double-layered membranes that line body cavities and cover organs, secreting serous fluid for lubrication.

Pleurisy

Inflammation of the pleurae (serous membranes surrounding the lungs).

Peritonitis

Inflammation of the peritoneum (serous membrane lining the abdominopelvic cavity).

Anatomical Position

The standard body position used as an initial reference point: body erect, feet slightly apart, toes directed forward, and arms at sides with palms directed forward.

Directional Terms

Words used to describe the position of a body part in relation to another part.

Superior

Toward the head end or upper part of a structure or the body; above.

Inferior

Away from the head end or toward the lower part of a structure or the body; below.

Anterior

Toward or at the front of the body; in front of.

Posterior (Dorsal)

Toward or at the back of the body; behind.

Medial

Toward or at the midline of the body; on the inner side of.

Lateral

Away from the midline of the body; on the outer side of.

Proximal

Closer to the origin of the body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk.

Distal

Farther from the origin of a body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk.

Superficial 

Toward or at the body surface.

Deep

Away from the body surface; more internal.

Axial

The main axis of the body, including the head, neck, and trunk.

Appendicular

The limbs (upper and lower extremities) attached to the axial skeleton.

Body Plane

A flat surface along which the body or a structure may be cut for anatomical study.

Sagittal Plane

A vertical plane that divides the body vertically into right and left parts.

Midsagittal (Median) Plane

A sagittal plane that lies exactly on the midline of the body, dividing it into equal right and left halves.

Parasagittal Plane

A sagittal plane offset from the midline, dividing the body into unequal right and left parts.

Frontal (Coronal) Plane

A vertical plane that divides the body into anterior (front) and posterior (back) parts.

Transverse (Horizontal) Plane

A horizontal plane that divides the body into superior (top) and inferior (bottom) parts, producing a cross section.

Oblique Section

A cut made diagonally between the horizontal and vertical planes.

Body Cavities

Internal spaces within the body that are closed to the external environment and provide protection to organs.

Dorsal Body Cavity

The posterior body cavity that protects the nervous system and includes the cranial cavity and vertebral cavity.

Ventral Body Cavity

The anterior body cavity that contains the internal organs (viscera) and is separated by the diaphragm into the thoracic cavity and abdominopelvic cavity.

Cranial Cavity

The subdivision of the dorsal body cavity that encases the brain.

Vertebral (Spinal) Cavity

The subdivision of the dorsal body cavity that encases the spinal cord.

Thoracic Cavity

The superior subdivision of the ventral body cavity, located superior to the diaphragm, containing the heart and lungs.

Pleural Cavities

Two subdivisions within the thoracic cavity, each surrounding a lung.

Mediastinum

The central subdivision of the thoracic cavity that contains the pericardial cavity and surrounds thoracic organs like the esophagus and trachea.

Pericardial Cavity

The cavity within the mediastinum that encloses the heart.

Abdominopelvic Cavity

The inferior subdivision of the ventral body cavity, located inferior to the diaphragm, containing the abdominal and pelvic cavities.

Abdominal Cavity

The superior part of the abdominopelvic cavity, containing the stomach, intestines, spleen, liver, and other organs.

Pelvic Cavity

The inferior part of the abdominopelvic cavity, containing the urinary bladder, reproductive organs, and rectum.

Parietal Serosa

The part of a serous membrane that lines the internal body cavity walls.

Visceral Serosa

The part of a serous membrane that covers the internal organs (viscera).

Serous Fluid

Fluid secreted by both layers of serous membrane, separating them within a slit-like cavity to reduce friction.

Pericardium

The serous membrane associated with the heart.

Pleurae

The serous membranes associated with the lungs.

Peritoneum

The serous membrane associated with the abdominopelvic cavity.