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Theory
A systematic way of organising and explaining observations designed to explain a set of phenomena, more encompassing than a hypothesis.
Example of a theory
Lying is associated with certain personality types.
Hypothesis
A statement which can be tested.
Hypothesis example
The more psychopathic someone is, the more lies they will tell.
Psychopathy
A behaviour of lack of interest in others.
Statistics
Unlikely to be due to chance if the p-value is less than 5%.
Correlation
A number that represents the size and relationship between two things.
William James
One of the founders of psychology - set up the first laboratory intended for teaching psychology.
Wilhelm Wundt
Considered to be one of the founders of psychology - set up first research laboratory - is more important.
Skinners Box
Tool is used to train a rat to behave in a particular way in response to reinforcement.
Skinners Box Example
When light turns green, and the rat presses a lever it gets something to eat.
Social Psychology
The application of psychological knowledge, research, and methods to understanding the social world. It's about understanding the way the world acts, and the way we think, feel, and behave, but also how we influence the social context in which we fit in through the way we feel and behave.
Albert
Important in contemporary clinical psychology. Developed CBT.
Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT)
Focuses on helping people identify the links between their cognition (thinking) and behaviour.
Maslow
Important to humanism.
Humanism
Views people above everything else.
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs pyramid
Things at bottom are necessities, things at top are wants.
Sigmund freud
Discovered the Structural model of the psyche made up of the unconscious mind, the id and ego.
The id
Unconscious mind seeking immediate gratification.
Ego
Balances desires with reality.
Superego
Enforces morals and societal norm.
Trepanation
Drilling holes into peoples skulls for therapy.
Nativism
We are born with every faculty we eventually exhibit.
Empiricism
Everything we can do we learn how to do.
Functionalism
Was discovered by James. The idea that parts of the brain have specific functions.
The four humors
Personality results from a balance of four fluids
blood - sanguine (cheerful)
black bile - melancholic (unhappy)
yellow bile - choleric (bad tempered)
phlegm - phlegmatic (calm)
Blood
Sanguine (cheerful).
Black bile
melancholic (unhappy).
Yellow bile
Choleric (bad tempered).
Phlegm
Phlegmatic (calm).
Soma Times
Our personalities reflect the shape of our bodies.
Nurture
We are all born a blank slate.
Panopto
We are all born evil
Galton
Argued to what extent do we inherit qualities from our parents. Those with better parents have better life outcomes.
Eugenics
Eliminating undesirable traits from society by killing people with them.
Rosenthal
Discovered the Pygmalion and Gollum affects.
The pygmalion affect
People are outcomes of the way they are treated.
The gollum affect
People aren’t outcomes of the ways they are treated.
Bandura
Studied how being around violence impact behaviour.
Norman Triplett hypothesis
That individuals performance is facilitated by others.
Social facilitation
The positive affect of observers on an individuals performance.
Information influence
Conformity increases if there were more neutral trials at the start.
Normative influence
Increasing interdependence of participants by promising a reward to the most accurate group.
Compliance
Conformity primary because of concern about how they will be perceived while privately disagreeing.
Conversion
Conformity primary because of belief that others are right then they have changed their own private opinion.
Group membership
If people feel they belong with others a behaviour of those others becomes a norm that is internalised and relevant for behaviour as a group member.
Conformity
When it feels like you need to do something.
Obedience
When you are being told to do something.
Cultural psychology
Studies the way people are affected by their culture.
Cross-cultural psychology
Tries to distinguish universal psychological processes from those that are specific to certain cultures.
Emic
Approaches research and makes approaches that’s focused primarily within a cultural context.
Etic
Looks at psychological questions that are ideally informed by cross-cultural perspectives. so not assuming that the viewpoint of any one culture is going to be relevant in answering a particular question.
Individualist culture
Where the individual’s needs are prioritised.
Collectivist culture
Where the needs of the group are prioritised.
Correspondance bias
Tendency to attribute others behaviour to internal dispositions rather than situational constraints.
Self-serving bias
Tendency to attribute our own positive outcomes to internal, stable, ‘causes,’ and negative outcomes to external, unstable factors.
Stanford prison study
Tested authoritarianism. Intended to evaluate the causes of problems in navy prisons. was conducted by Philip Zimbardo.
Depersonalisation
Switch to group level self categorisation. Seeing themselves as the group they belong to - guard, prisoner. Often referred to as engaging in dehumanization; treating others like objects, or without regard for feelings
Deindividualization
Loss of self-awareness in groups.
Adorno et al
They argued that some people are prejudiced at the personality level.
Conventionalism
The idea that the world shouldn’t change.
Authoritarian submission
The idea that you should do what you are told.
Authoritarian aggression
The idea that if you don’t do what you are told it is okay that you get beat up.
What happens if a child is punished too much
If parents negatively reinforce and punish kids too often, the child develops a controlling personality, and consequently a dangerous world belief.
Cognitive Dissonance
The feeling of uncomfortable tension which comes from holding two conflicting thoughts in the mind at the same time. Often strong when we believe something about ourselves, but our behaviour is inconsistent with that belief. The discomfort often feels like a tension with two opposing thoughts.
Idea behind little Albert
Process of reinforcement - we are required to do things people are wanting us to do. punished for things people don’t want us to do.
Little Albert experiment
White rat and loud noise. After a while the baby starts crying because of the presence of the rat - no longer need the noise that goes along with it. If behaviour is not reinforced over time, it will become distinguished.
Bioethical principles
Respect of autonomy (people choose if they want to participate).
Beneficence (doing something for good).
Non-maleficence (not doing things for evil).
Justice (doing things that maintain a just world).
Ringelmann affect
In bigger groups individual effort decreases.
Social loafing
A reduction in individual effort when working on a collective task. (In which one’s output are pulled with those of other group members) compared to working alone or coactively.
Bystander affect
The finding that a lone bystander is more likely to give someone help than any one of several bystanders.
Diffusion of responsibility
Simular to social loafing - the presence of others provides an opportunity to transfer the responsibility to act onto someone else. The more someone else’s there are, the greater the diffusion.
Audience inhabitation
The presence of others makes people self-conscious of an intended action.
Social influence
Other onlookers serve as models for action.
Pluralistic ignorance
Unworried other dissuade/discourage individual intervention even if they are worried.
Strangers vs friends
If other onlookers are strangers, then helping is inhibited (communication is slower), however, inhibition is decreased even among strangers if it is known there will be future opportunities to interact.
Reduced personal accomplishment
A negative response towards oneself and ones accomplishments.
Trauma
When an individual is exposed to actual or threatened death, serious injury or sexual violence.
Physiognomy
Dispositions follow bodily characteristics… physical appearance (face) is a window on the psyche.
Sigmund Freuds topographical model
The way we think can be broken down into three basic levels. The unconscious, preconscious, and the unconscious.
Carl Jung
Important to introversion and extraversion.
The nomothetic approach
Identification, measurement and description of common traits across individuals.
The ideographic approach
Identification of the unique combination of traits the account for an individual’s personality.
The big five
Openness, consciousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism.
DeYoung
Invented the big five.
Narcissist
Thinks they are all that - worry they’re not and that everyone else should recognise their all that.
Machiavellian personality
Relative lack of affect in interpersonal relationships. Lack of concern for conventional mortality. Lack of gross psychopathy. Low ‘ideological’ commitment. Less attentive of emotion of other people in their lives.
Psychopaths
Predicts re-offending, and breaking break the law differently to other offenders i.e starts younger, spends more time in prison, behaves worse in prison.
Three groups of psychopathy
Interpersonal, affective, behavioural.
Interpersonal psychopathy
Arrogant, callous, manipulative.
Affective psychopathy
Shallow, irritable, lacking remorse
Behavioural psychopathy
Parasitic, impulsive, irresponsive, breaks rules.
Karpman
Invented primary and secondary psychopathy.
Primary psychopathy
Dodgy personality and effect.
Secondary psychopathy
Disorganised lifestyle.
Antisocial personality disorder
APD.
Subcriminal psychopaths
Higher functioning psychopaths manages to stay on the right side of the law.
The dark triad
Psychopathy, narcissism, and machiavellianism.
The dark tetrad
Psychopathy, narcissism, machiavellianism, AND sadism.
By Maori
Research done by Maori or have Maori as part of the research team.
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