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George Washington
Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army, led Battle of Trenton and the surrender at Yorktown, which secured independence. unified the colonies, and his resignation after the war set a precedent for civilian control of the military. As the first President of the United States he established lasting foundations, symbol of integrity and national unity.
Peace of Paris (1763)
formally ended 7 years war/ Fr Indian war, brit got control of Fr north america, east of mississippi, cuz brit bankrupt by war stop colonists from westward expansion -> Royal Proclamation Line
Patrick Henry
crucial in mobilizing the colonies toward revolution, advocating for individual rights, and shaping early governance
Stamp Act Congress
delegates from 9 of the colonies argued only elected colonial reps could tax, no tax w/o rep, also spoke of need for rights and liberties like trial by jury
Samuel Adams
organized resistance to Brit rule, leader of the Sons of Liberty, coordinate protests against British policies like the Stamp Act and planned the Boston Tea Party in 1773. rallied public support for independence through writings, speeches, and political activism, helped unify the colonies in their fight for independence.
Acts against the colonists
Sugar Act, Quartering Act, Stamp Act, Declaratory Act, Townshend Acts (glass/tea/lead/paint), Tea Act, and Quebec Act
Intolerable/Coercive Acts
series of laws by Britain in 1774 to punish MA for the Boston Tea Party -> closing Boston's port, restricting Massachusetts' self-governance, allowing British officials to avoid local trials, and forcing colonists to house British troops. united the colonies in opposition, led to the First Continental Congress and push toward War.
Whigs
those who supported colonial resistance against British policies during the lead-up to the American Revolution. opposed the authoritarian measures like Stamp Act and Intolerable Acts, advocated for independence, Sons of Liberty, Sam Adams and John Adams
Lord North
British Prime Minister from 1770 to 1782, escalated tensions w/ colonies. passed the Tea Act and enforced the Intolerable Acts, after defeat at Yorktown, resigned in 1782, marked the end of British control over colonies.
First Continental Congress
12 of 13 colonies sent delegates (no GA) to discuss Brit Acts, wrote Declaration of Rights and Grievances, passed Articles of Association -> boycotted Brit good 1774
John Jay
Founding Father, key negotiator of the Treaty of Paris (1783), which secured American independence, co-authored essays in The Federalist Papers advocating for the ratification of the U.S. Constitution. served as the first Chief Justice, negotiated Jay's Treaty (1794 which stabilized relations with Britain and averted war)
Second Continental Congress
appointed George Washington as Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army and adopted the Declaration of Independence and Articles of Confederation (new const), secured informal alliance with France, Olive Branch Petition after Battle of Bunker Hill
Thomas Jefferson
Founding Father and the principal author of the Declaration of Independence, first Secretary of State and the third President of the United States, oversaw the Louisiana Purchase in 1803 (which doubled the nation's size) and advo for edu, rel freedom and science
Battle of Bunker Hill
showed Patriots could fight superior British troops -> even though Brit win, was costly and demoralizing for Brit
Battle of Saratoga
Patriot militia cut off 3 way attack by ambushing one of the ways and defeating them in NJ, marked turning point in war and official alliance with France (possibility of Patriots winning)
Yorktown
last major battle of War, surrender of British General Cornwallis. victory highlighted critical alliance between America and French, led to peace negotiations and ultimately the Treaty of Paris (1783), recognized independence.
Valley Forge
continental army suffer winter w/ 3000 dying from disease, starvation and cold -> Baron Von Stueban refromed and disciplined troops to be better by spring
Land Ordinances of the 1780s
series of laws enacted by the Confederation Congress to regulate the settlement, governance, education, prohibition of slavery, and admission of new states, of the western territories acquired after the American Revolution.
Articles of Confederation
first constitution of the United States, creating a weak national government that faced many challenges due to its limited powers. led to the Constitutional Convention -> establishment of the U.S. Constitution
Shay's Rebellion
MA tax crisis, imposed a 5x tax increase to pay war debts and required it paid in hard currency (put enough pressure on the poor farmers, they revolted) led by Capt. Shays , resulted in Riot Act and crushing of the revolt
James Madison
"Father of the Constitution" for his pivotal role in its creation and promotion. He co-authored The Federalist Papers, helped draft the Bill of Rights, and served as President during the War of 1812
Alexander Hamilton
first Secretary of the Treasury, wrote most of the Federalist Papers, founded the Federalist Party. economic policies and vision for a strong central government laid the foundation for the modern American financial system and governance.
Federalists
supported the ratification of the U.S. Constitution and advocated for a strong central government. Key figures like Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay authored The Federalist Papers, strong federal government was essential for maintaining order and economic stability
Anti-Federalists
opposed the ratification of the U.S. Constitution, feared it created a federal government too powerful and threatened individual liberties and state sovereignty. Key figures like Patrick Henry and George Mason argued for explicit protections of rights -> Bill of Rights.
Constitutional Convention
created a new constitution after congress needed more power to regulate state and international trade and taxes, formed a bicameral legislature with a House of Reps and Senate (great compromise) and the 3/5ths compromise
Great Compromise of 1787
By Connecticut, balancing representation between larger and smaller states by creating the House of Representatives (based on population) and the Senate (with equal representation).
3/5ths Compromise
determined how slaves would be counted for taxation and representation in the new government
Commercial Compromise
allowed Congress to regulate interstate and international commerce while prohibiting export taxes and delaying any ban on the importation of slaves for twenty years
National Bank
Hamilton's proposed, designed to stabilize the post-Rev econ, manage national debt, and create a unified financial system. opposition from Jefferson, who argued it unconstitutional, Hamilton successfully defended the bank, w/ support from Washington, est. 1791, central role in the nation's early financial stability
Henry Knox
military leader during the Rev, first Secretary of War, organized artillery units crucial to Trenton, Saratoga, and Yorktown.
Judiciary Act of 1789
est. Supreme court with one chief justice and 5 associate justices to rule on the constitutionality of state court rulings (13 district court + 3 circuit courts)
Federalist Era
led by Alexander Hamilton, John Adams, and George Washington, strong central gov, commercial/industrial devo, and close ties with Britain, created Bank of US, states debts, new system of taxes, Proclaimation of Neutrality (1793), Jays Treaty (1795), Alien and Sedition Acts (1798), led to growth of Demo Rep party
Democratic Republican Party
also called Jeffersonian Republicans, led by Jefferson and Madison in opposition to Federalist Party, wanted strict interp of const, agrarian econ, state power, and Pro Fr foreign policy, rose to power with Jefferson as Pres (1800) and westward expansion
John Adams
2nd US Pres, as a lawyer defended Brit soldiers in BOS massacre to show imp of law even for opponents, diplomat in Europe during Rev getting support for Patriots, negotiated Treaty of Paris, As pres foreign policy challenges and the controversial Alien and Sedition Acts, last in Fed Era
Alien and Sedition Acts
election of 1798 won fed majority in both houses, feds took advantage by enacting laws to restrict pol rights of Dem-Reps (immigrants) w/ the Naturalization Act need 14 years to be a citizen, Alien Act allowed Pres to deport aliens considered dangerous, Sedition Act made it illegal for news to criticize Pres or congress (seen as unconst)
Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions
Dem-Reps seeing Alien and Sedition Acts as unconst enacted nullifying laws in state legis (written by Jefferson/Madison)
Battle of Fallen Timbers
1794 decisive U.S. victory over a Native confederation, ending Native resistance in the Northwest Territory. led to Treaty of Greenville, vast area to American settlers and reduced British influence in the region
Treaty of Greeville
1795, Native tribes ceded large portions of present-day Ohio, Indiana, and other territories to the US, opening the region to American settlement.
Jays Treaty
1794, resolved some post-Rev tensions w/ Brit, British withdrawal from forts in the Northwest Territory, compensation for seized US ships but no agreement ag future seizing, helped prevent war with Britain, opposition for being too lenient, deepening the pol divide between Feds and Dem-Reps (led to Fr relations)
Pinckney Treaty
1795 was a diplo success for the U.S., granting US settlers free navigation of the Mississippi River, access to the port of New Orleans, and settling the boundary w/ Spanish Florida at the 31st parallel
XYZ Affair
During Adams Pres, US angered by Fr warships seizing US merchant ships, Adams wanted peaceful settlement, Fr wanted bribes so that they'd negotiate (never new Fr ministers names [X,Y,Z]) ppl wanted war with france (hamilton rationalized it) Adams refused.
Louisiana Purchase
Major Jefferson Pres achievement, 1803, 828,000 square miles of territory west of the Mississippi River for $15 million (3cents per acre) This purchase effectively doubled the size of the US, Fr Napoleon fighting everywhere in Europe and Haiti sold to focus on Europe, James Monroe negotiated deal, Lewis and Clark expeditioned into land, rose questions ab natives and slavery
Aaron Burr
served as vice president under Thomas Jefferson. However, his legacy is overshadowed by his fatal duel with Alexander Hamilton, conspiracy to establish a separate nation in the Southwest led to charges of treason (acquitted)
John Marshall
Chief Justice of the United States from 1801 to 1835 est. authority of the Supreme Court and the principle of judicial review, landmark cases, McCulloch v Maryland and Gibbon v Ogden
Marbury v. Madison
upheld the federal government's right to create a national bank and reinforced federal supremacy over state laws. est. doctrine of implied powers, allowing Congress to use Necessary and Proper Clause
Gibbon v Ogden
landmark Supreme Court case that clarified the scope of Congress's power to regulate interstate commerce and reinforced the principle of federal supremacy over state laws
Era of Good Feelings
1815-1825, period of political harmony, national pride, and econ growth following the War of 1812. dom of Dem-Rep Party under President James Monroe, unity and optimism, underlying tensions, ab slavery and regional econ difs
James Monroe
5th Pres, Era of Good Feelings, Monroe Doctrine (asserted that the Western Hemisphere was off-limits to future European colonization) and acquisition of Florida
Second Bank of the US
est. 1816 to provide a stable national currency and regulate the banking system. significant pol opposition, from Andrew Jackson, viewed as corrupt institution. bank's charter was not renewed in 1836 due to Jackson, led to its dissolution and econ instability.
War of 1812 causes
conflict with Brit over impressment of American sailors by the British navy, trade restrictions that harmed the U.S. economy, conflicts over westward expansion and Native American resistance (helped by brit), rising nationalism, and failed diplomatic efforts.
Embargo Act of 1807
law passed to prohibit US exports in an effort to protect U.S. interests and avoid conflict with Britain and France. led to sig econ hardship, esp for New England merchants, ultimately failed, show difficulties in maintaining neutrality
Battle of Tippecanoe 1811
William Henry Harrison defeated Tecumsehs' native confederacy, US victory weakened Native resistance to expansion and heightened tensions for War of 1812.
Battle of New Orleans
final major conflict of the War of 1812. Led by General Andrew Jackson, US forces decisively defeated the British
Treaty of Ghent
Officially ended the war of 1812, signed before the Battle of New Orleans but news hadn't traveled yet
Hartford Convention
Feds in New England opposed the war of 1812, they proposed reforms at this convention, thier influence collapsed after Jacksons victory (decline of Fed party w/
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