Pathophysiology Lecture Notes

Flashcards for Pathophysiology Lecture Review

What does the hypothalamus modulate?

The activities of the anterior and posterior lobes of the pituitary gland.

What does Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) stimulate?

Synthesis and secretion of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH).

What does Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) stimulate?

Release of ACTH from the pituitary.

What condition can babies develop if hypothyroidism is left untreated?

Growth issues and brain development issues.

What is hyperthyroidism?

Too much thyroid hormone, leading to hypermetabolism and elevated serum levels of free thyroid hormones (T3 and T4).

What condition is the most common type of hyperthyroidism?

Graves' disease.

What is a classic characteristic of Graves' disease?

Autoimmune disease characterized by hyperthyroidism, goiter (enlargement of thyroid gland) and/or exophthalmos (eye symptoms).

What is a common symptom of hyperthyroidism related to heart rate?

Tachycardia (over 100 bpm).

What is a sign of hyperthyroidism related to TSH levels?

All patients with hyperthyroidism have undetectable serum TSH levels.

What is hypothyroidism?

Thyroid hormone (TH) deficiency.

What autoimmune disease is the most common cause of hypothyroidism?

Hashimoto's thyroiditis.

What deficiency can cause hypothyroidism?

Iodine deficiency.

What is Hashimoto’s thyroiditis?

Chronic autoimmune inflammation of the thyroid, most common cause of primary hypothyroidism in North America.

What does the parathyroid gland produce?

Parathyroid hormone (PTH).

What is the most common disease of the parathyroid gland?

Hyperparathyroidism (overactivity of one or more of the parathyroid lobes).

What condition does Hyperparathyroidism lead to?

Hypercalcemia, kidney stones, and osteoporosis.

What is Addison's disease?

A disease resulting from adrenal cortical hypofunction (deficiency).

The adrenal cortex gland produces which three hormones?

Cortisol, aldosterone, and DHEA/SEX hormones.

What is Cushing's syndrome?

Hyperfunction of the adrenal cortex gland that affects cortisol production.

What are common visual symptoms of Cushing's syndrome?

Rounded moon faces and buffalo hump.

What is diabetes mellitus (DM)?

Impaired insulin secretion and variable degrees of peripheral insulin resistance leading to hyperglycemia.

What are early symptoms of Diabetes Mellitus?

Polydipsia, polyphagia, and polyuria.

What does insulin do to blood sugar levels?

Reduces blood sugar levels.

In Type 1 Diabetes what happens to insulin production?

Insulin production is absent due to autoimmune pancreatic B-Cell (beta cell) destruction.

Is Ketoacidosis common in Type 1 or Type 2 Diabetes?

Common in Type 1 Diabetes.

What are the characteristics of adults with Type 2 Diabetes?

Insulin production becomes inadequate often due to insulin resistance.

What are microvascular diseases?

Retinopathy (eye), nephropathy (kidney), and neuropathy (nerve).

What are Macrovascular diseases?

Myocardial infarction (heart attack), strokes and peripheral arterial disease.

In kidney damage, what is likely to show in the kidneys?

Protein and albumin may be positive which shows kidney damage.

What HbA1c level indicates diabetes?

HbA1c ≥ 6.5%.

What Blood glucose level range is desirable during the day for people with diabetes?

Between 80 and 120 mg/dL.

What is diabetic ketoacidosis?

An acute metabolic complication of diabetes characterized by hyperglycemia, hyperketonemia, and metabolic acidosis.

What is a distinctive sign and symptom related to GI for children with Diabetes?

Nausea, vomiting and abdominal pain

What is Hypoglycemia?

A diabetic emergency, also known as "insulin shock", when someone has too much insulin compared to the glucose in their blood.

What is Hyperglycemic Syndrome

A diabetic emergency due to very high blood sugar levels in the blood, over 600 mg/dL.

What is Dyslipidemia?

Abnormal blood lipid level, elevation of plasma cholesterol, triglycerides or both or a low HDL, High LDL that contribute to the development of atherosclerosis.

Which is known as the good fat?

HDL-carries extra cholesterol back to the liver where it can be metabolized/eliminated

What is Metabolic Syndrome?

Excess abdominal fat leads to increasing fat accumulation in the liver which impairs glucose metabolism and hypertension develops

What are diseases that are the Risk of a Metabolic Syndrome?

1. Obstructive sleep apnea 2. Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (nonalcoholic fatty liver disease) 3. Polycystic ovary syndrome (for women)

What is Obesity and what are disease risks?

Obesity: excessive body weight, increases risk of many disorders: diabetes, high blood pressure, heart disease, and certain cancers

What is Body Mass Index?

BMI:Body mass index, it’s weight divided by height, Overweight: BMI of 25 to 29.9. Obesity: BMI of 30 to 39.9

What hormone does the hypothalamus secrete to regulate the release of gonadotropins?

GnRH: gonadotropin releasing hormone, which regulates the release of gonadotropins luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)

What hormone from the ovaries are stimulated from LH & FSH?

Estrogen & progesterone which stimulate the target organs of the reproductive system ( breasts, uterus, vagina)

What happens during the Menstrual Cycle?

periodic discharge of blood and sloughed endometrium, average duration: 5 days (as short as 3 days, as long as 7 days average duration: 5 days (as short as 3 days, as long as 7 days)

What is the follicular phase?

(1st phase & 2nd phase): growth of recruited follicles. FSH secretion increases slightly, stimulating growth of recruited follicles.

Which phase is ovum release occur and what day?

: egg release -ovum release occurs at 14th day of a 28 day cycle

What is secreted during the luteal phase?

follicle is transformed into a corpus luteum which secretes progesterone which supports pregnancy Progesterone stimulates development of secretory endometrium which is necessary for embryonic implantation.

What is Polycystic Ovary Syndrome?

PCOS is a hormonal disorder common among women of reproductive age. The exact cause of this is unknown.

What is Dysmenorrhea?

uterine pain around the time of menses (painful menstruation)

What is dysmenorrhea a result from?

due to pelvic abnormalities such as endometriosis (most common) and fibroids

What is premenstrual syndrome?

PMS: irritability, anxiety, emotional, depression, edema, breast pain, headache, occuring during the 7-10 days before and ending a few hours after the start of menstruation

What is PREMENSTRUAL DYSPHORIC DISORDER PMDD?

SEVERE symptoms that occur regularly and only during the 2nd half of the menstrual cycle

What is Menopause?

Physiologic or iatrogenic cessation of menses (amenorrhea) due to decreasing ovarian function

What is a symptom of Menopause that may occur?

hot ashes, atrophic vaginitis, osteoporosis; DX: absence of menses for 1 year

Define perimenopause.

Perimenopause refers to the years before and the 1 year after last menses

What causes OSteoporosis/risk after menopause??

Osteoporosis increases because estrogen is decreased, increasing bone resorption by osteoclasts

What is Endometriosis?

non cancerous disorder in which functioning endometrial tissue is implanted outside the uterine cavity

How may Endometriosis occur?

endometrial cells are transported from the uterine cavity and become implanted at ectopic sites. Retrograde ow of menstrual tissue

What are some breast lumps?

fibrocystic changes or broadenomas

What is BREAST LUMPS/fibrocystic changes?

the most commonly reported breast symptoms most of the time they do have symptoms accompanied with the lungs and in this case, its benign

What does Breast cancer grading is based on?

TNM (tumor size, lymph node enlargement, mestasis)

What Gynecologic cancers are most common? What are the often involved?

often involve the uterus, ovaries, cervix, vulva, vagina, fallopian tubes, or the peritoneum. The most common gynecologic cancer in the US is endometrial cancer, followed by ovarian cancer: Cervical cancer is not very common in developed countries because screening with the Papanicolaou (Pap) test

What does endometrial cancer cause?

typically, postmenopausal vaginal bleeding occurs, diagnosis is by biopsy.

What are Uterine Fibroids?

(benign uterine tumors): Cause abnormal vaginal bleeding

What is menorrhagia?

heavy prolonged uterine bleeding

What is metrorrhagia?

irregular abnormal uterine bleeding

What is infertility?

Inability to conceive after 1 year of unprotected intercourse. Can be caused by: Sperm disorder (35% of couples)

What are some examples of Tubal dysfunction and pelvic lesion?

Tubal dysfunction and pelvic lesion, Abnormal cervical mucus, Unidenti ed factors

What is Decreased Ovarian Reserve?

diminished ovarian reserve (refers to quality and quantity of her eggs) occurs when a woman’s ovaries lose their reproductive potential which can cause infertility

What is Ovulatory Dysfunction?

abnormal irregular or absent ovulation (egg doesn’t mature or release) : -most commonly caused by PCOS (imbalance of reproductive hormones: excessive male hormone androgen)

What is Tubal Dysfunction

Tubal dysf: is fallopian tube obstruction (egg cannot meet with sperm and cannot get pregnant

What causes Respiratory changes during High Risk Pregnancies?

Oxygen consumption increases by about 20 percent to meet the increased metabolic needs of the fetus etc

What GI and hepatobiliary changes occur in high risk pregnancies?

may cause constipation. GI motility decreases?

What is an Ectopic Pregnancy?

Complication of pregnancy when the embryo attaches outside of the uterus (usually in fallopian tube

What ares some RISK FACTORS for Ectopic Pregnancies

Pelvic in ammatory disease, Chlamydia Smoking Infertility Tubal surgery

What is normal labor?

Progressive contractions of uterus smooth muscle that causes e acement (stretching/dilating) of uterine cervix Born between 37 & 42 weeks (normal)

What are the Functional units of the kidney?

nephrons ( lter the blood and produce urine)

What are the Functions of Kidney?

1: getting rid of waste product (mostly urea, uric acid & creatinine) 2: Maintain proper balance of water and minerals

What Electrolytes that regulate the amount of uid in the body do test look for?

Potassium K, Sodium, Calcium, Chloride and Carbon dioxide and BUN (blood urea nitrogen: it’s a waste product

What causes Urinalysis Tract INFECTIONS (UTI) ?

mainly caused by E coli bacteria (uropathogenic E coli causes more than 80% of community acquired UTI’S in all age groups)

What are Glomeruli Disorders?

nephritic syndrome (blood urine) (nephrotic syndrome: high level proteinuria: protein urine)

What is the most common caused by for postinfectious glomerulonephritis?

this occurs after infection, usually with a nephritogenic strain of Beta-Hemolytic streptococcus (a type of strep)

What is Antistreptolysin O (ASO)?

is the most common lab evidence of recent strep infection which shows in the blood even after months of infections it is linked to

What is NEPHROTIC SYNDROME?

a collection of symptoms due to kidney glomerular damage that results from severe prolonged increase in glomerular permeability for protein, Main features are heavy proteinuria (protein urine) and generalized edema

In Diabetic Nephropathy, what are signs of uremia?

raised level in blood of urea and other nitrogenous waste compounds that are normally eliminated by the kidney

What is an example of Renal Failure?

Symptoms: deveclop slowly and include anorexia, nausea, vomit, stomatitis, dysusia, noctura, lassitude, fatoigue

What is the most common cause of renal failure?

diabetic nephropathy and hypertensive nephrosclerosis (complications if blood pressure is not controlled, can develop kidney failure)

What is Benign Prosrate Disase?

hyperplasia: overgrowth- the prostate can be a ected by hyperplasia, infection & cancer

What causes BPH/BENIGN PROTRATE DISEASE?

:BPH is non malignant adenomatous overgrowth of the periurethral (center of the gland) prostate gland which causes urinary obstruction-weak stream, hesitancy

What causes Progression into GENITOURINARY CANCER: Prostate Cancer?

symptoms are rare until obstruction occurs

What is the most common dermatologic cancer in males?

.TOP CANCER IN MALES:Prostate Cancer, -adenocarcinoma

What BLADDER CANCER TYPES are more common?

Transitional cell carcinoma (over 90%)

What is NEPHROLITHIASIS (KIDNEY STONE)?

presence of crystalline stones within urinary system (kidney and ureter form when urine becomes concentrated, allowing minerals to crystallize and stick togehter

What is Vaginal Bleeding during pregnancy? What condtion can this show?

NOT A PART OF NORMAL PREGNANCY.Classic symptoms of Ectopic Pregnancy: (but not every women has theses symptoms!)-amenorrhea (no menses for a few weeks bc pregnant, but later on some bleeding)

What is an Ectopic Pregnancy?

Complication of pregnancy when the embryo attaches outside of the uterus (usually in fallopian tube)-Normal implantation occurs in uterus

How do Healthy person live? (INFECTIOUS DISEASE HIGHLIGHTS

lives in harmony with microbial ora that helps protect its host from invasion by pathogens. (bacteria typically co-exists with human body, if not, they’re called pathogens and cause human disease)

What defense make up the HOST DEFENSE MECHANISM?

1. Host that protect against infection include natural barriers, Natural barriers: SKIN 2. Non-speci c immune response (phagocytic cells, neutrophils, macrophages) 3. Speci c immune responses (your body reacts speci cally against that type of organism) (antibodies, lymphocytes)

What is apart of the MUCOUS MEMBRANES that protect infectious disease?

Respiratory tract: epithelial cells GI TRACT:acid pH of stomach and antibacterial activity of pancreatic enzymes, bile and intestinal secretions

What NONSPECIFIC IMMUNE RESPONSE does the body have?

. Cytokines: protein substances including chemokines, interferons, tumor necrosis factors They’re produced by macrophages and activated lymphocytes and mediate and acute phase response that develops regardless of microorganisms

What color are Gram bacteria under microscope?

Gram positive bacteria: blue under microscope and Gram negative bacteria: pink under microscope