Psychology - Unit 0

Psychodynamic Perspective

Explores how unconscious drives, conflicts, and childhood experiences shape behavior.

Behviorism

Focuses on observable behaviors and the ways they’re learned through the interaction with the environment.

Humanistic

Emphasizes personal growth, free will, and the concept of self-actualization.

Cognitive

Examines internal mental processes such as thinking, memory, and problem-solving.

Biological

Studies the physiological bases of behavior in humans and animals.

Evolutionary

Considers how behavior and mental processes serve as adaptations for survival and reproduction.

Sociocultural

Analyzes how culture, social norms, and social environments influence behavior.

Biopsychosocial 

Combines biological, psychological, and social factors to provide a comprehensive understanding of human behavior.

Pyschology

The scientific study of mental processes and behavior.

Confirmation Bias

People tend to look for interpret, or remember info in a way that confirms what they already believe.

Hindsight Bias

People believe that they knew something was going to happen after it occurred, even if they didn’t actually predict it.

Overconfidence

When people have too much faith in their own judgments or abilities, thinking they know more than they actually do.

Empirical Evidence

Refers to information that is obtained through observation, experimentation, or measurement, Helps prevent cognitive bias by providing objective data.

The Scientific Method

By applying the scientific method psychologists can generate empirical evidence, test hypotheses and develop theories that are grounded in objective analysis.

Hypothesis

A specific testable prediction or educated guess about the relationship between variables or outcome.

Falsifiable

Hypothesis that can be tested and potentially proven false.

Peer Review

A process where research articles and studies are evaluated by experts in the filed before they are published in academic journals.

Replication

Process of repeating or reproducing a research study to determine if its findings can be consistently observed.

Reliability

A measure or test is considered reliable if it produces consistent results when administered repeatedly under similar conditions.

Validity

Measures what it’s intended to measure.The

American Psychological Association (APA)

Organization dedicated to advancing the field of psychology and promoting the application of psychological knowledge to improve human welfare.

Research Design

The overall plan for how you will answer a research question. It includes deciding what you want to study, what to find out, and how you will gather and analyze your information.

Methodology

The tools and methods your use to collect your data/specific ways to gather info.

Quantitative Data

Numbers-based information gathered from surveys, tests, or experiments.

Qualitative Data

Not about numbers but gives deeper insights into complex topics collected through methods like interviews or observations, focusing on people’s experiences and behviors.

Likert Scales

A measurement tool used in surveys and questions forms to assess peoples attitudes, opinions, or perceptions. 

Structured Interviews

Research method in which predetermined questions are asked to all participants in the same order.

Survey Technique

Research method in psychology used to collect data from a sample of individuals through self-report measures.

Wording Effect

Subtle changes in the phrasing or wording of survey questions can influence respondents’ interpretations and responses.

Social Desirability Bias

Refers to the tendency of individuals to respond in a manner that is viewed favorably by others or conforms to social norms, rather than providing honest and accurate answers.

Naturalistic Observation

Research method in psychology where researchers observe and record behavior in real-word setting without intervention or manipulation.

Case Study

Involves in depth examination of a single individual, group, or phenomenon. 

Correlational Research

Examining the relationship between 2 variables that doesn’t involve the manipulation of variables (naturally incurring relationships).

Third Variable Problem

Possibility that a third unmeasured variable may be influencing the relationship between the 2 variables of interest.

Scatterplot

Visual representation used in correlational research to display the relationship between 2 variables.

Correlation Coefficient

Statistical measure used in correlational research to quantify the strength and direction of the relationship r from -1 to +1 or no relationship.

No Correlation

r = 0, no relationship

Positive Correlation

Coefficient is positive. One variable tends to increase as the other increases as the other increases variables moving in same discretion.

Negative Correlation

R value is negative. The variables are moving in opposite directions.

Experimental Method

A research technique used to investigate cause and effect relationship between variables.

Independent Variable

The variable that the researcher is deliberately changing or manipulating in an experiment.

Dependent Variable

The variable that is observed and measured for changes in an experiment.

Confounding Variable

A variable that wasn’t accounted for or controlled in the study but still affects results.

Operational Definition

Specifies how a researcher will measure and manipulate variables in a study.

Experimental Group

The participants in the experimental group are indeed exposed to the independent variable, which is the variable manipulated by the researcher to observe its effects on the dependent variable.

Control Group

A group of participants who were not exposed to the independent variable.

Random Assignment 

Research method used to assign participants to different groups in an experiment fairly.

Placebo Effect

Phenomenon where people think they took the treatment but didn’t and experienced the positive affects.

Experimental Bias

The researcher’s expectations or beliefs about the outcome of a study influence the results.

Single-Blind Study

Research design where participants are unaware of whether they belong to he experimental or control group, but the researcher knows the info.

Double-Blind Study

Research design where both the participants and researcher both don’t know who is experimental or control.

Placebo Condition

Administering the placebo to one group of participants while the other group receives the actual treatment being tested.

Sample

Refers to a subset of individuals or cases selected from a larger population for study.

Representative Sample 

A subset of individuals selected from a larger population in such a way that it accurately reflects the demographics, characteristics, and diversity of that population.

Random Sample

Ensues that every participant in the study has an equal opportunity to be included, which helps to minimize the influence of researcher bias and increase the generalizability of the findings to the population as a whole.

Sample Bias

This bias occurs when the sample is not representative of the larger population, leading to inaccurate of misleading results.

Generalizability

The extent to which research findings can be applied to a larger population.

Statistics

A large amount of data can be collected in research studies. Psychologists need to make sense of it. 

Descriptive Statistics

Refer to numerical measures used to summarize and describe the characteristic of a dataset.

Inferential Statistics

Involves using data from a sample to make inferences or predictions about a larger population.

Measures of Central Tendency

Statistical tools used to describe the central or average value of a set of data.

Normal Curve or Bell Curve

Majority of the data falls near the center, or mean, of the distribution, with fewer values occurring further away from the mean in both directions.

Regression to the Mean

When extreme scores that tend to get closer to average then measured again. Happens because their score is due to temporary factors.

Positive Skew

Left side most data, falls right, high outliers.

Negative Skew

Right side most data, tail left, low outliers.

Standard Dfeviation

A way to measure how spread out data is.

Bimodal Distribution

Two distinct peaks

Statistical Significance

Likelihood that observed results are not due to chance. p <0.05 (significant) p > 0.05 (not significant)

Effect Sizes

Large effect size indicates big/significant impact small shows small impact.

Meta Analysis

The statistical analysis of multiple research studies on the same topic to draw overall conclusions.

Institutional Review Boards (IRBs)

Committees that review and approve research and approve research proposals to make sure they meet ethical standards and protect the rights and welfare of participants.

Protect Participants from Harm

Emphasizes the obligation of researchers to minimize risks and ensure well-being for participants throughout the study.

Informed Consent

Process through which individuals voluntarily agree to participate after given comprehensive procedures, risks, benefits and rights.

Informed Assent

Specifically applies to research involving kids or people with limited decision-making.

Confidentiality

Requires researchers to handle sensitive and personal info obtained during the study with trust and discretion.

Deception

In psychology, deception may involve misleading participants about the true purpose or nature of the study, the procedure involved, or the expected outcome.

Confederates

Individuals who are part of the study but are actually working with the researcher and know the truth. 

Debriefing

Giving participants comprehensive information about the true nature, purpose, and procedures of a research study immediately after.