Research Methods and Statistics

These flashcards cover key concepts related to research methods and statistics, aiding in understanding and retention for exam preparation.

Sampling

The process by which researchers select a subset of individuals or items from a larger population to gather data from.

Representativeness

The degree to which a sample accurately reflects the essential characteristics of a larger population.

Probability Sampling

A class of sampling methods where every element in the population has a known probability of being selected.

Non-probability sampling

Selecting elements without a known probability of selection, which can create bias.

Generalizability

The extent to which the results of a study can be applied to the general population.

Sampling error

Differences between the characteristics of a sample and characteristics of the population.

Random sampling error

Differences between the population and the sample due only to chance factors.

Sampling frame

A list of all elements in the target population from which the sample is selected.

Parameter

Characteristics of a population.

Statistic

Characteristic of a sample.

Simple random sampling

A method where every sample is based on chance.

Systematic random sampling

Sample elements are selected from a list at regular intervals.

Stratified random sampling

Sample elements are selected from identified population strata.

Cluster sampling

Dividing the population into heterogeneous subgroups and randomly selecting entire clusters.

Periodicity

Sequence of elements that varies in some regular pattern; a threat to systematic sampling.

Availability sampling

A non-probability method where participants are chosen based on easy accessibility.

Quota Sampling

Elements are selected to ensure a sample represents certain characteristics in proportion.

Purposive Sampling

Elements are selected for a specific purpose based on their unique position.

Snowball Sampling

Participants recruit future subjects from their own network.

Idiographic explanation

Focuses on the individual sequence of events leading to a specific outcome.

Nomothetic explanation

Aims to identify common influences across multiple cases or events.

Association

Variation in one variable is related to variation in another.

Time Order

The independent variable must occur before the dependent variable.

Nonspuriousness

A relationship between two variables not caused by a third variable.

Intrusiveness

The act of collecting data without the awareness of the participants.

Internal validity

The extent to which the independent variable caused the observed outcome.

External validity

The extent to which findings can be applied to the target population.

Pretest

Measurement of an outcome before the treatment within an experiment.

Posttest

Measurement of an outcome after treatment has taken place.

Selection Bias

Differences in characteristics between experimental and comparison groups affecting results.

Endogenous change

Changes in subjects occurring naturally that may affect outcomes.

Contamination

When one group becomes aware of another group's treatment, biasing responses.

Cronbach's Alpha

A measure of internal consistency or reliability of a test.

Ecological fallacy

Incorrect conclusions about individual-level processes drawn from group-level data.

Voluntary participation

A foundational principle requiring individuals to choose to participate freely.

Informed consent

Participants must be fully aware of the research before taking part.

Mixed methods

Triangulation, or the use of multiple methods to study a research question.