art history concepts/terms

Catacomb

an underground burial complex used by early Christians in Rome beginning in the 2nd–3rd centuries CE. Christians rejected Roman cremation because they believed in bodily resurrection at the Last Judgment, so they buried the dead in these subterranean tunnels. functioned as sacred spaces for worship and commemoration of martyrs.
Example: Catacomb of Callisto, Rome, 3rd c. – ceiling paintings of Christ as the Good Shepherd show how early Christians used symbolic imagery adapted from Roman art to represent Christ before figural depictions of Jesus became common. They also used many depictions of the Eucharist, showing their devotion and holiness to this ceremony Christ took part in.

Pilgrimage

a sacred journey undertaken by medieval Christians to visit holy sites associated with saints, relics, or important events in Christian history. shaped church architecture by requiring large spaces for crowds and relic veneration.
Example: St. Sernin, Toulouse (12th c., Romanesque) was built along a major pilgrimage route to Santiago de Compostela. Its long nave, ambulatory, and radiating chapels allowed pilgrims to circulate around relics without disrupting church services.

Icon

a sacred image, usually of Christ, the Virgin, or saints, used in Byzantine devotional practice. were believed to mediate between the viewer and the holy figure depicted, functioning as spiritual conduits rather than mere representations.
Example: Christ Pantocrator, St. Catherine’s Monastery, Sinai, 6th c., encaustic on panel. The frontal, authoritative image of Christ emphasizes divine presence and theological authority, showing how blanks were central to Byzantine worship.

Apse

the semicircular or polygonal space at the eastern end of a church, typically housing the altar and major imagery. In Christian architecture, became the focal point for theological imagery that reinforced Christ’s authority and imperial power.
Example: San Vitale, Ravenna, 6th c. – the apse mosaic of Christ Enthroned visually links Christ to imperial authority, reinforcing Byzantine ideas of divine kingship.

Iconoclasm

refers to the Byzantine periods (8th–9th centuries) when religious images were destroyed or banned due to fears that icons promoted idolatry. This controversy reflected debates over whether holy figures could be depicted materially.
Example: The later work Triumph of Orthodoxy (15th c.) celebrates the restoration of icons after, visually affirming the legitimacy of sacred images in Byzantine worship.

Nave

the long central aisle of a basilica-style church where the congregation gathers. Its elongated form reflects early Christian adaptation of Roman basilicas for worship.
Example: St. Sernin, Toulouse – the long, vaulted blank accommodates large numbers of pilgrims, emphasizing the church’s function as a pilgrimage site.

Byzantine Empire

was the eastern continuation of the Roman Empire, centered in Constantinople. Its art emphasized spiritual abstraction, imperial authority, and Christian theology, particularly through mosaics and icons.
Example: Hagia Sophia, 6th c., Constantinople – the massive domed interior expresses the union of imperial power and divine authority in Byzantine culture.

Barrel Vault

a continuous semicircular stone vault used in Romanesque churches to create fireproof, monumental interiors. Its heavy weight required thick walls and small windows.
Example: St. Sernin, Toulouse – the blank nave reflects Romanesque engineering and creates a solemn, fortress-like sacred space.

Acheiropoietic

means “not made by human hands,” referring to images believed to have been miraculously created, enhancing their sacred authority.
Example: The concept underlies Byzantine beliefs about certain icons of Christ, reinforcing arguments for iconophilia (veneration of images), as seen in the ideology celebrated by the Triumph of Orthodoxy.

Tympanum

the sculpted semicircular space above a church portal, often used in Romanesque architecture to convey theological messages to viewers entering the church.
Example: Gislebertus, Last Judgment, St. Lazare, Autun, 12th c. – presents a dramatic vision of heaven and hell, reinforcing moral instruction for medieval worshippers.

Relic (Primary, Contact, Tertiary)

are physical remains or objects associated with saints. are body parts; touched the saint; touched a relic. Relics were believed to hold miraculous power and drew pilgrims.
Example: Reliquary of St. Foy, Conques, 10th c. – housed the saint’s relics and became a major pilgrimage destination.

Ribbed Groin Vault

a Gothic structural system where stone ribs support intersecting vaults, allowing for taller buildings and thinner walls.
Example: St. Denis, choir and ambulatory – ribbed vaults enable increased height and light, contributing to Gothic verticality.

Reliquary

a container for relics, often richly decorated to honor the saint and attract pilgrims.
Example: Reliquary of St. Foy, Conques – made of gold and jewels, it visually conveys the spiritual value of the relic through material splendor.

Choir

the area near the altar reserved for clergy and liturgical music. In Gothic churches, it became architecturally elaborate.
Example: St. Denis, 12th c. – Abbot Suger’s redesigned introduced light-filled Gothic architecture.

Furta Sacra

(“holy theft”) refers to the medieval practice of stealing relics to enhance a church’s prestige and attract pilgrims.
Example: The cult of relics at Conques, including St. Foy, reflects how relic acquisition increased a site’s religious and economic importance.

Flying Buttress

an external support system in Gothic architecture that transfers the weight of vaults outward, allowing for tall walls and large stained-glass windows.
Example: St. Denis and Sainte-Chapelle demonstrate how blanks enable the walls to dissolve into windows, emphasizing divine light.

Gothic

architecture emphasizes height, light, and skeletal structure, associated with divine transcendence.
Example: Sainte-Chapelle, Paris, 13th c. – extreme verticality and stained glass embody Gothic ideals of lux nova (new light).

Romanesque

architecture (11th–12th c.) is characterized by thick walls, barrel vaults, and heavy, fortress-like forms.
Example: St. Sernin, Toulouse – massive stone construction and rounded arches reflect

Illumination

refers to the decoration of manuscripts with gold, color, and imagery, enhancing the sacred status of texts.
Example: Book of Kells, Chi Rho page – transforms scripture into a devotional object.

Historiated Initial

a large letter at the beginning of a text containing a narrative scene.
Example: Ormsby Psalter, 13th c. – the initial for Psalm 52 contains the Three Temptations of Christ.

Marginalia / Babuini

playful or subversive images in manuscript margins. are grotesque monkey-like figures mocking human behavior.
Example: Missal of Petrus, 14th c. – monkeys parody scribes, reflecting medieval humor and social commentary.

Carpet Page

a full-page ornamental design in Insular manuscripts, used for meditation rather than narrative.
Example: Lindisfarne Gospels, 8th c. – intricate interlace patterns reflect Hiberno-Saxon aesthetics.

Chi Rho

a Christogram formed from the Greek letters XP, symbolizing Christ’s name.
Example: Book of Kells, Chi Rho page – the letters become nearly abstract through complex decoration, emphasizing the sacredness of Christ’s name.

Repoussé

s a metalworking technique where designs are hammered from the reverse side to create raised relief.
Example: Codex Aureus, 9th c. – gold cover with Christ in Glory visually expresses the preciousness of scripture.

Lost-Wax Bronze Casting

A casting method used since antiquity to create detailed bronze sculptures.
Example: Ghiberti & Brunelleschi, Sacrifice of Isaac competition panels, Baptistry of San Giovanni, Florence, 10th century

Basilica / Latin-Cross Plan

an early Christian church form adapted from Roman civic buildings, with a long nave, side aisles, and an apse. The Latin-cross plan adds a transept crossing the nave, forming a cross shape that symbolically refers to Christ’s crucifixion.
Example: St. Sernin, Toulouse, Romanesque, 12th c. – built on a basilica plan with a Latin-cross layout, accommodating pilgrims moving through the nave and transept

Martyrium / Mausoleum

a structure built over the tomb of a martyr, while a blank is a monumental tomb. In early Christianity, martyr shrines became major pilgrimage destinations and centers of cult worship.
Example: The cult of saints at Conques (Reliquary of St. Foy) reflects the tradition of martyr-centered worship; pilgrimage churches developed around saintly burial sites.

Rayonnant Architecture

a phase of Gothic architecture emphasizing radiant light, skeletal structure, and expansive stained glass, minimizing wall surface in favor of window-filled interiors.
Example: Sainte-Chapelle, Paris, 13th c. – extreme blank Gothic, where walls dissolve into stained glass to create a jewel-box effect centered on royal relics.

Lux Nova

(“new light”) is Abbot Suger’s theological concept that divine light experienced through stained glass could elevate the soul toward God. Architecture became a spiritual medium.
Example: St. Denis, choir – Suger’s Gothic renovation used large stained-glass windows to flood the interior with colored light as a manifestation of divine presence.

Theocracy

a political system in which religious authority and political power are united. In Byzantium, the emperor was seen as God’s representative on earth, merging church and state.
Example: Justinian and Theodora mosaics, San Vitale, Ravenna – depict the emperor and empress participating in religious ritual, visually asserting theocratic authority.

Sacred Kingship

refers to the belief that rulers govern by divine right and are spiritually sanctioned by God. Medieval rulers used art and architecture to legitimize their authority as God-chosen leaders.

King Louis IX and his crown of thorns, with the chapel Sainte-Chapelle in gothic style in Paris 1242-1248. It was known for stained glass and the alter housing the crown, along with several images relating Louis back to other kings and figures from the Bible. It featured him bringing the crown into the city barefoot wearing a humble robe.

Scriptorium

a monastic writing workshop where monks copied and illuminated manuscripts. These spaces were crucial for preserving classical and Christian texts during the Middle Ages.
Example: Lindisfarne Gospels – produced in a monastic blank, showing how monasteries functioned as centers of learning and artistic production.

Complex Interlace

refers to the intricate knotwork patterns characteristic of Insular (Hiberno-Saxon) manuscript decoration, blending Celtic, Germanic, and Christian traditions.
Example: Book of Kells, Chi Rho page – dense patterns overwhelm the text, transforming scripture into a visual meditation.

Gloss

a written commentary or explanation or translation added in the margins of a manuscript to clarify difficult passages, often in Latin or vernacular languages.
Example: Manuscripts like the Lindisfarne Gospels contain interlinear or marginal glosses, showing how medieval readers engaged actively with sacred texts and began translating them to be understood.

Book of Hours

a private devotional manuscript used by laypeople for daily prayer, structured around the canonical hours of the day. Its popularity reflects the rise of personal piety in the later Middle Ages.
Example: resemble manuscripts like the Ormsby Psalter in their personal devotional function and rich illumination.

Altarpiece

a painted or sculpted work placed behind or above an altar, serving as a visual focus for worship and theological instruction.
Example: Duccio, Maestà, Siena, 14th c. – a monumental blank presenting the Virgin and Child enthroned, reinforcing Marian devotion in a civic and religious context.

Basilica vs. Gothic Verticality

Romanesque blank emphasize mass, heaviness, and stability, while Gothic churches emphasize height, light, and skeletal structure meant to lift the viewer’s gaze toward heaven.
Example: St. Sernin (Romanesque) vs. Sainte-Chapelle (Gothic) – contrasting approaches to how architecture shapes religious experience.