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Cognitive neuroscience
The scientific study of the biological basis of mental processing such as perception, consciousness, action, memory, decision making, language, and selective attention.
Circadian rhythm
Internal biological clock synchronizing with a 24-hour cycle.
Stage one of sleep
Brief, hypnagogic sensations.
Stage two of sleep
Sleep spindles and k-complexes.
Stage three of sleep
Slow delta waves, deep sleep.
Cycle of a typical night’s sleep
Starts in stage one and works its way down to stage 3, with stages getting longer throughout the night.
REM sleep
Vivid dreams, rapid eye movement; known as paradoxical sleep.
Hypothalamus
Regulates sleep and wakefulness, containing nerve cells that help control sleep.
Melatonin
Hormone that contributes to our circadian rhythm and creates tiredness.
Benefits of sleep
Maintains healthy weight, improves mood, lowers chronic disease risk, aids growth and development, enhances brain function, and boosts the immune system.
Sleep deprivation
Not getting the required amount of sleep.
Insomnia
Persistent problems falling or staying asleep.
Narcolepsy
Sudden attacks of overwhelming sleepiness.
Sleep apnea
Intermittent stopping of breathing during sleep.
Sleep and aging
As people age, sleep becomes more fragile, with frequent awakenings common among older adults.
Physiological dream theory
Reorganizing memory and learning during dreams.
Activation-synthesis theory
Brain trying to interpret meaningless, random neural firing during REM.
Sensation
The process by which we receive information from the environment.
Top-down processing
Guided by experience and higher-level processes; we see what we expect to see.
Bottom-up processing
Starts with sensory input; the brain builds from small details to a larger concept.
Transduction
The process of converting energy of a stimulus into neural activity.
Absolute threshold
The smallest level of stimulus that can be detected.
Difference threshold
The minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50% of the time.
Signal detection theory
Predicts how and when we detect a faint stimulus amid background stimulation.
Sensory adaptation
Decreased sensitivity to a constant stimulus over time.
Amplitude of light
Height of light waves, determining brightness; small amplitude results in dull color.
Cornea
The eye’s clear, protective outer layer covering the pupil and iris.
Iris
Band of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye and controls pupil size.
Pupil
The adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters.
Lens
Transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to focus images on the retina.
Retina
Light-sensitive inner surface of the eye containing rods and cones for processing visual information.
Fovea
Central focal point in the retina responsible for greatest visual acuity.
Optic nerve
Carries neural impulses from the retina to the brain.
Accommodation
The process by which the lens changes curvature to focus on objects at various distances.
Rods
Retinal photoreceptors detecting black, white, and gray; sensitive to movement.
Cones
Retinal photoreceptors functioning in daylight, detecting fine details, and creating color sensations.
Blind spot
Point on the retina where the optic nerve leaves the eye; no photoreceptors present.
Young-Helmholtz Theory
Theory stating the retina contains three types of color receptors (red, green, blue) for color perception.
Opponent-Process Theory
Theory that opposing retinal processing enables color vision.
Parallel processing
The brain’s ability to process multiple aspects of a visual scene simultaneously.
Conduction hearing loss
Hearing loss due to damage to the mechanical system transmitting sound waves to the cochlea.
Sensorineural hearing loss
Hearing loss resulting from damage to the cochlea’s hair cells or the auditory nerve.
Outer ear
The physical ear.
Middle ear
Chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones.
Inner ear
Innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs.
Tympanic membrane
Vibrates in response to sound waves.
Cochlea
Coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear where sound waves trigger nerve impulses.
Auditory canal
Channel in the outer ear that funnels sound waves to the eardrum.
Oval window
Membrane-covered opening of the cochlea that vibrates in response to sound waves.
Place Theory
Theory explaining pitch perception based on activity at different places along the basilar membrane.
Frequency Theory
Theory suggesting the brain reads pitch by monitoring frequency of neural impulses.
Gate-Control Theory
Theory that the spinal cord contains a 'gate' that blocks or allows pain signals to the brain.
Phantom-Limb Theory
Pain felt in an amputated limb due to the brain’s misinterpretation of sensory signals.
Gustation
Sense of taste, stimulated by chemicals in food.
Olfaction
Sense of smell, involving the detection of airborne chemicals.
Biopsychosocial approach to pain
Approach integrating biological, psychological, and social factors to understand phenomena like pain.
Chemical senses
Senses involving the detection of chemicals, including taste (gustation) and smell (olfaction).
Kinesthesis
Sense that monitors body position and movement.
Vestibular sense
Monitors position and movement of the head and body, primarily located in the inner ear.
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