AP Psychology Unit 1 part 2 terms (combined-updated)

biological psychology

the scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes.

biopsychosocial approach

an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis.

Neuroplasticity

the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience.

lesion [LEE-zhuhn]

tissue destruction. Brain lesions may occur naturally (from disease or trauma), during surgery, or experimentally (using electrodes to destroy brain cells).

EEG (electroencephalogram)

an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.

PET (positron emission tomography)

a technique for detecting brain activity that displays where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task.

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)

a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue. MRI scans show brain anatomy.

fMRI (functional MRI)

a technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. fMRI scans show brain function as well as structure.

Brainstem

the central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions.

medulla [muh-DUL-uh]

the hindbrain structure that is the brainstem's base; controls heartbeat and breathing.

thalamus [THAL-uh-muss]

the forebrain's sensory control center, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla.

reticular formation

a nerve network that travels through the brainstem into the thalamus; it filters information and plays an important role in controlling arousal.

cerebellum [sehr-uh- BELL-um]

the hindbrain's "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; its functions include processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory.

limbic system

neural system located mostly in the forebrain — below the cerebral hemispheres — that includes the amygdala, hypothalamus, hippocampus, thalamus, and pituitary gland; associated with emotions and drives.

amygdala [uh-MIG-duh-la]

two lima-bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion.

hypothalamus [hi-po-THAL- uh-muss]

a limbic system neural structure lying below (hypo) the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system, and is linked to emotion and reward.

Hippocampus

a neural center in the limbic system that helps process explicit (conscious) memories — of facts and events — for storage.

cerebral [seh-REE-bruhl] cortex

the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the forebrain's cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center.

frontal lobes

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead.

parietal lobes

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; it receives sensory input for touch and body position.

occipital lobes

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; it includes areas that receive information from the visual fields.

temporal lobes

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; it includes the auditory areas, each of which receives information primarily from the opposite ear.

motor cortex

a cerebral cortex area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements.

somatosensory cortex

a cerebral cortex area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations.

association areas

areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions, but rather are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking.

Neurogenesis

the formation of new neurons.

corpus callosum

the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them.

split brain

a condition resulting from surgery that separates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them.

dual processing

the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks.

Blindsight

a condition in which a person can respond to a visual stimulus without consciously experiencing it.

Sleep

a periodic, natural loss of consciousness — as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation.

circadian rhythm

our biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle.

REM sleep

rapid eye movement sleep; a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur.

alpha waves

the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state.

NREM sleep

non-rapid eye movement sleep; encompasses all sleep stages except for REM sleep.

Hallucinations

false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus.

hypnagogic sensations

bizarre experiences, such as jerking or a feeling of falling or floating weightlessly, while transitioning to sleep.

delta waves

the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep.

suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)

a pair of cell clusters in the hypothalamus that controls circadian rhythm.

Insomnia

recurring problems in falling or staying asleep.

Narcolepsy

a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks.

sleep apnea

a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings.

REM sleep behavior disorder

a sleep disorder in which normal REM paralysis does not occur; instead, twitching, talking, or even kicking or punching may occur, often acting out one's dream.

Dream

a sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person's mind.

REM rebound

the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation.

Sensation

the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment.

sensory receptors

sensory nerve endings that respond to stimuli.

Perception

the process by which our brain organizes and interprets sensory information, enabling us to recognize objects and events as meaningful.

bottom-up processing

information processing that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information.

top-down processing

information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations.

Transduction

conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of physical energy, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses the brain can interpret.

Psychophysics

the study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them.

absolute threshold

the minimum stimulus energy needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time.

signal detection theory

a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise); assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness.

Subliminal

below one's absolute threshold for conscious awareness.

Priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response.

difference threshold

the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time. We experience the difference threshold as a just noticeable difference (jnd).

Weber's law

the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount).

sensory adaptation

diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation.

Wavelength

the distance from the peak of one light wave or sound wave to the peak of the next. Electromagnetic wavelengths vary from the short gamma waves to the long pulses of radio transmission.

Hue

the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as the color names blue, green, and so forth.

Intensity

the amount of energy in a light wave or sound wave, which influences what we perceive as brightness or loudness. Intensity is determined by the wave's amplitude (height).

Cornea

the eye's clear, protective outer layer, covering the pupil and iris.

Pupil

the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters.

Iris

a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening.

Lens

the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina.

Retina

the light-sensitive back inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information.

Accommodation

the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus images of near or far objects on the retina.

Rods

retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray, and are sensitive to movement. Rods are necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond.

Cones

retinal receptors that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. Cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations.

Optic nerve

the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain.

Blind spot

the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a "blind" spot because no receptor cells are located there.

Fovea

the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster.

Young-Helmholtz trichromatic (three-color) theory

the theory that the retina contains three different types of color receptors — one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue — which, when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color.

Opponent-process theory

the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, blue-yellow, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green.

Feature detectors

nerve cells in the brain's visual cortex that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement.

Audition

the sense or act of hearing.

Frequency

the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time (for example, per second).

Pitch

a tone's experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency.

Middle ear

the chamber between the eardrum and the cochlea containing three tiny bones that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea's oval window.

Cochlea

a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear; sound waves traveling through the cochlear fluid trigger nerve impulses.

Inner ear

the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs.

Sensorineural hearing loss

the most common form of hearing loss, caused by damage to the cochlea's receptor cells or to the auditory nerve; also called nerve deafness.

Conduction hearing loss

a less common form of hearing loss, caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea.

Cochlear implant

a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea.

Place theory

in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated. (Also called place coding.)

Frequency theory

in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch. (Also called temporal coding.)

Gate-control theory

the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain.

Gustation

our sense of taste.

Olfaction

our sense of smell.

Kinesthesis

our movement sense; our system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts.

Vestibular sense

our balance sense; our sense of body movement and position that enables our sense of balance.

Sensory interaction

the principle that one sense can influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste.