El Pequeño

AP Gov Semester 1 Exam

Public Opinion

The distribution of the population’s beliefs about politics and policy issues

Demography

The science of human population changes

Census

A valuable tool for understanding demographic changes. The constitution requires that the government conduct and “actual enumeration” of the population every 10 years.

Melting Pot

The mixing of cultures, ideas, and peoples that has changed the American nation. The United States, with its history of immigration, has often been called a melting pot. (salad bowl)

Minority Majority

The emergence of a non-Caucasian majority, as compared with a white, generally Anglo-Saxon majority. It is predicted that by the 2040s, Hispanic Americans, African Americans, and Asian Americans together will outnumber white Americans

Political Culture

An overall set of values widely shared within a society

Reapportionment

The process of reallocating sears in the House of Representatives every 10 years on the basis of the results of the census. (redistricting, gerrymandering).

Sample

A relatively small proportion of people who are chosen in a survey so as to be representative of the whole (generally about 1000 participants).

Random Sampling

The key techniques employed by sophisticated survey researchers, which operates on the principle that everyone should have an equal probability of being selected for the sample.

Random Digit Dialing

A technique used by pollsters to place telephone calls randomly to both listed and unlisted numbers when conducting a survey.

Exit Polls

Public opinion surveys used by major media pollsters to predict electoral winners with speed and precision (bandwagon effect)

Push Polls

A seemingly unbiased telephone survey that is actually conducted by supporters of a particular candidate and disseminates negative information about an opponent with the goal of persuading participants to change their views. These do NOT measure public opinion.

Political Ideology

A coherent set of beliefs about politics, public policy, and public purpose. It helps give meaning to political events, personalities, and policies. (Liberalism, conservatism)

Gender Gap

A term that refers to the regular pattern by which women are more likely to support Democratic candidates, Women tend to be significantly less conservative than men and are more likely to support spending on social services and oppose higher levels of military spending (cross pressure/cleavage).

Civil Disobedience

A form of political participation that reflects a conscious decision to break a law believed to be immoral and to suffer the consequences.

Salad Bowl

A new term to describe, and celebrate the diversity of the United States without the controversial notion of assimilation found in the term melting pot.

Bandwagon Effect

An effect caused by exit poll projections in which undecided voters turnout to support the candidate who is leading in the polls.

Cross-pressure

A term used to describe being caught between two or more conflicting demographic tendencies (Cross Cutting Cleavages)

Mass Media

Television, radio, newspapers, magazines, the Internet, and other means of popular communication.

Press Conference

Meetings of public officials with reporters. Since the Watergate/Vietnam era, the media has become more aggressive in its scrutiny of the Whitehouse (watchdog); therefore, recent Presidents have preferred the electronic throne over the press conference.

Investigative Jounalism

The use of detective-like reporting to unearth scandals, scams, and schemes, placing reporters in adversarial relationships with political leaders. Ever since the Washington Pose broke the story of Watergate (Richard Nixon’s illegal activities) the media has been in a constant posture of suspicion against big government and big corporations.

Print Media

Newspapers and magazines, as compared with broadcast media

Broadcast Media

Television and radio, as compared with print media

Chains

By 1994, more than 80 percent of America’s daily papers were controlled by national and regional chains

Narrowcasting

Media programming on cable TV or the Internet that is focused on one topic and aimed at a particular audience. Examples include MTV, ESPN, and C-SPAN. While it certainly increases out entertainment options, critics claim it makes our news coverage more biased and splintered, contribution to selective perception.

Trial Balloons

An intentional news leak for the purpose of assessing the political reaction.

Sound Bites

Short video clips of approximately 15 seconds, typically all that is shown from a politician’s speech or activities on the nightly television news

Talking Head

A shot of a person’s face talking directly to the camera. Because this is visually unappealing, the major commercial networks rarely show a politician talking one-on-one for very long (Infotainment).

Policy Agenda

The issues that attract the serious attention of public officials and other people actively involved in politics at the time.

“Electronic Throne”

The presidential skill of using the television as a platform for public persuasion; developed as an alternative to press conferences. (Media event, gatekeeper role of the media)

“Infotainment”

A term used to characterize the recent trend in network television news production that blends analysis with entertainment. Many experts believe this trend can be linked to many other trends in politics and voter behavior. A good example is the ever-growing illusion that a Hollywood break-up is actually NEWS.

Legitimacy

A characterization of elections by political scientists meaning that they are almost universally accepted as a fair and free method of selecting political leaders. When legitimacy is high, as in the United States, even the losers accept the results peacefully (2020 is an anomaly)

Referendum

A state-level method of direct legislation that gives voters a chance to approve or disapprove proposed constitutional amendment.

Initiative Petition

A process permitted in some states whereby voters may put proposed changes in the state constitution to a vote if sufficient signatures are obtained on petitions calling for such a referendum.

Suffrage

The legal right to vote, extended to African Americans by the Fifteenth Amendment, to women by the Nineteenth Amendment, and to people over the age of 18 by the Twenty-sixth Amendment.

Political Efficacy

The belief that one’s political participation really matters; that one’s vote can actually make a difference. Since the 1960s, it has been dropping- especially among 18-25 year olds.

Civic Duty

The belief that in order to support democratic government, a citizen should actively participate in the political process.

Voter Registration

A system adopted by the states that requires voters to register well in advance of Election Day. A few states permit Election Day registration.

Motor Voter Act

Passed in 1993, this Act went into effect for the 1996 election. It requires states to permit people to register to vote at the same time they apply for their driver’s license.

Mandate Theory of Elections

The idea that the winning candidate has a mandate from the people to carry out his or her platforms and politics. Politicians like the theory better than political scientists do.

Policy Voting

Electoral choices that are made on the basis of the voter’s policy preferences and on the basis of where the candidates stand on policy issues (Dealignment, ticket splitting).

Electoral College

A unique American institution, created by the Constitution, providing for the selection of the president by electors chosen by the state parties. Candidates who win the popular vote in each state receive all of that state’s electoral votes. The candidate receiving 270 electoral votes wins the presidential election.

Prospective Voting

A theory of voting of which voters decide who to vote for based on the promises the candidate makes during the campaign.

Retrospective Voting

A theory of voting in which voters essentially ask this simple question: “What have you done for me lately?” (Policy voting, pork barrel projects, incumbency)

Bush v. Gore 2000

An extremely controversial U.S. Supreme Court ruling that stopped a manual recount of ballots in Florida, thereby awarding Florida’s electoral votes to George W. Bush and declaring him the winner of the 2000 election.

Recall Election

The Power of the People at the state or local level to “recall” an elected official, or remove them from office and force a follow up election.

Party Competition

The battle of the parties for control of public offices. Ups and downs of the two major parties are one of the most important elements in American politics.

Political Party

A group of people trying to gain control of the country’s governing apparatus (at the local or national level) by winning elections.

Rational-choice Theory

A popular theory in political science to explain the actions of voters as well as politicians. It assumes that individuals act in their own best interest, carefully weighing the costs and benefits of possible alternatives.

Party Identification

A citizen’s self-proclaimed preference for one party or the other. (dealignment)

Ticket-splitting

Voting with one party for one office and with another party for other offices. It has become the norm in American voting behavior. (dealignment)

Party Machines

A type of political party organization that relies heavily on material inducements, such as patronage to win votes and to govern.

Patronage

One of the key inducements used by party machines. A patronage job, promotion, or contract is one that is given for political reasons rather than for merit or competence alone.

National Convention

The meeting of party delegates every four years to choose a presidential ticket and write the party’s platform.

National Committee

One of the institutions that keeps the party operating between conventions. The national committee is composed of representatives from the states and territories.

National Chairperson

The national chairperson is responsible for the day-to-day activities of the party and is usually nominated by the presidential nominee.

Coalition

A group of individuals with a common interest upon which every political party depends.

Party Eras

Historical periods in which a majority of voters cling to the party in power, which tends to win a majority of the elections.

Critical Election

An electoral “earthquake” where new issues emerge, new coalitions replace old ones, and the majority party is often displaced by the minority party. Critical election periods are sometimes marked by a national crisis and may require more than one election to bring about a new party era.

New Deal Coalition

A coalition forged by the Democrats, who dominated American politics from the 1930’s to the 1960’s. Its basic elements were the urban working class, ethnic groups, Catholics and Jews, the poor, Southerners, African Americans, and intellectuals.

Party Dealignment

The gradual disengagement of people and politicians from strict party identification. In the past 30 years, more Americans are calling themselves “independents,” and splitting their ballots up between parties. (ticket-splitting)

Party Neutrality

A term used to describe the fact that many Americans are indifferent toward two major political parties.

Third Parties

Electoral contenders other than the two major parties. American third parties are not unusual but they rarely win elections as a result of the winner-take-all nature of the Electoral College.

Winner-take-all System

An electoral system in which legislative seats are awarded only to the candidates who comes in first in their constituencies. For example, in the presidential election, the candidate who wins the most votes in Washington state receives ALL twelve of Washington’s electoral votes.

Proportional Representation

An electoral system used throughout most of Europe that awards legislative seats to political parties in proportion to the number of votes won in an election.

Responsible Party Model

A view favored by some political scientists about how parties should work. According to the model, parties should offer clear choices to the voters, who can then use those choices as cues to their own preferences of candidates. Once in office, parties would carry out their campaign promises.

Interest Groups

An organization of people with shared policy goals entering the policy process at local and national levels in order to achieve policy change. (PACs, 527s, subgovernments, iron triangles, issue networks)

Pluralist Theory

A theory of government and politics emphasizing that politics is mainly a competition among groups, each one pressing for its own preferred policies.

Elite Theory

A theory of government and politics contending that societies are divided along class lines and than an upper-class elite will rule, regardless of the formal niceties of governmental organization.

Participatory Theory

A theory of government and politics contending that our form of democracy relies on the participation of many or most of the citizenry, not only in government (voting, etc.) but in public life as well.

Subgovernments (Iron Triangles, Issue Networks)

A term used to describe the relationship between interest group leaders interested in a particular policy, the government agency in charge of administrating that policy, and the members of congressional committees and subcommittees handling that policy.

Free-rider Problems

The problem faced by unions and other groups when people do not join because they can benefit from the group’s activities without officially joining (Olson’s Law, cohesiveness).

Olson’s Law of Large Groups

Advanced by Mancur Olson, a principle stating that “the larger the group, the further it will fall short of providing an optimal amount of a collective good.” (cohesiveness)

Selective Benefits

Goods (such as information publications, travel discounts, and group insurance rates) that a group can restrict to those who pay their annual dues.

Single-issue Groups

Groups that have a narrow interest, tend to dislike compromise, and often draw membership from people new to politics. These features distinguish them from traditional interest groups.

Lobbying

According to Lester Milbrath, a “communication, by someone other than a citizen acting on his own behalf, directed to a governmental decision maker with the hope of influencing his decision.”

Electioneering

Direct group involvement in the electoral process. Groups can help fund campaigns, provide testimony, and get members to work for candidates, and some form political action committees (PACs). (527s, FECA 1974, BiCRA 2002).

Political Action Committees (PACs)

Political funding vehicles created by 1974 campaign finance reforms. A corporation, union, or some other interest group can create a PAC and register it with the Federal Election Commission (FEC), which will meticulously monitor the PAC’s expenditures.

Amicus Curiae Briefs

Legal briefs submitted by a “friend of the court” for the purpose of raising additional points of view and presenting information not contained in the briefs of the formal parties. These briefs attempt to influence a court’s decision.

Class Action Suits

Lawsuits permitting a small number of people to sue on behalf of ll other people similarly situated.

Cohesiveness

A unified sense of purpose among all of the members, the single most important goal for any interest group (Olson’s Law, free-rider problem).

Government

The institutions and processes through which policies are made for a society.

Politics

The process by which we select our governmental leaders and what policies these leaders pursue. (The process by which we elect leaders to represent us in the “how”).

Political Participation

All the activities used by citizens to influence the selection of political leaders or the policies they pursue. Ex: voting, protest, and civil disobedience

Single-issue Group

Groups that have a narrow interest, tend to dislike compromise, and often draw membership from people new to politics (Cohesiveness, free-rider problem).

Policymaking System

The process by which policy comes into being and evolves over time. People’s interest and concerns create political issues for government policymakers. These issues shape policy, which in turn impacts people, generating more interests, problems, and concerns.

Linkage Institutions

The political channels through which people’s concerns become political issues on the policy agenda. Ex elections, political parties, interest groups, and the media.

Policy Agenda

The issues that attract the serious attention of public officials and other people actually involved in politics at any given time. (gatekeeper role of media, electronic throne).

Policymaking Institutions

The branches of government charged with taking action on political issues. Ex Congress, Presidency, Courts, and Bureaucracy

Democracy

A system of selecting policymakers and of organizing government so that policy represents and responds to the public’s preferences (republic, oligarchy).

Majority Rule

A fundamental principal of traditional democratic theory. In a democracy, choosing among alternatives require that the majority’s desire to be respected. (majority rule)

Minority Rights

A principle of traditional democratic theory that guarantees rights to those who do not belong to majorities but allows for their participation and protection (majority rule)

Pluralist Theory

A theory of government and politics emphasizing that politics is mainly a competition among groups, each one pressing for its preferred policies.

Elite and Class Theory

A theory of government and politics contending that societies are divided along class lines and that the upper-class elite will rule; or perhaps should rule (oligarchy).

Hyperpluralism

A cynical theory of government and politics contending that groups are so strong that government is weakened; pluralism gone bad (policy gridlock).

Policy Gridlock

A condition that occurs when no coalition is strong enough to form a majority and establish policy. The result is that nothing may get done.

Individualism

The belief that individuals should be left on their own by the government; a prominent belief in American political thought (conservative).

Declaration of Independence

The document approved by representatives of the American colonies in 1776 that stated their grievances against the British monarch and declared their independence. (Locke’s natural rights)

U.S. Constitution

The document written in 1787 and ratified in 1788 that sets forth the institutional structure of the U.S. government and the tasks these institutions perform. It replaced the Articles of Confederation.

Natural Rights

Rights inherent in human beings, not dependent on governments, which include life, liberty, and property. The concept was central to John Locke’s theories about government, and was widely accepted among America’s Founding Fathers. (Dec. of Independence)