Discourse

English Language Discourse

What is coherence?

Refers to the semantic connections that exist within a text to make it meaningful. If a text is coherent, it makes sense and is logical.

What are the factors that contribute to coherence?

Cohesion, inference, logical ordering, formatting, consistency, conventions

What is inference?

The reader’s/listener’s ability to make a connection between what was said/written and what was meant.

EXAMPLE:

Tom: “There’s someone at the door.”

Mary: “I’m in the shower.”

What is logical ordering?

A reasonable or sensible way of sequencing elements.

EXAMPLE:

The logical ordering of a fictional story would be: introduction, hook, rising action, climax and resolution

The logical ordering of the discourse is a factor that contributes to its coherence. The text begins with an overview of the subject, then progresses to explain some concepts in detail, and finishes with a summary.

What is formatting?

Refers to how the text is set out.

EXAMPLE:

Would be poor formatting to have titles and subheadings in a smaller font than running text.

The use of subtitles within the report formats information into categories, contributing to the text’s coherence and helping orient readers in the text.

What are conventions?

Refers to the standards or rules that you expect a discourse to follow.

EXAMPLE:

You’d expect a recipe to have a list of ingredients, followed by a method. 

One way in which the discourse achieves coherence is through the use of conventions that are typical of a letter. The text begins with a salutation (“Dear Madam” - line 1), followed by well-structured paragraphs, and ends with a formulaic closing from the writer (“Kind regards, Mr B. Smith” - line 60)

What is consistency?

Refers to formatting and conventions being used in a reasonably predictable manner, so that the features are not inserted in such a way that they interrupt information flow or appear illogical.

EXAMPLE:

Using the same style of writing, tone and register throughout the discourse.

What is cohesion?

Refers to linguistic connections that exist between words and sentences to give structure to a text. A cohesive text flows well and follows grammatical rules.

What are the factors that contribute to cohesion?

Lexical choice, information flow, anaphora, cataphora, diectics, repetition, ellipses, substitution, conjunctions and adverbials

What is information flow?

Refers to how information is sequences in a sentence. It is customary to place known information before new information. Given information is replaced with pronouns or ellipted to avoid repetition of details the audience is already aware of.

What contributes to information flow?

Clefting, front-focus, end-focus

What is end-focus?

When the most important/new information is placed at the end. May delay the mention of the subject, building suspense.

EXAMPLE:

End-focused: In rushed two doctors, completely smothered in blood, awkwardly carried a third person, who appeared to be unconscious.

Not end-focused: Three doctors, completely smothered in blood, with two of them awkwardly carrying a third person, who appeared to be unconscious, rushed in.

\[The long, complex noun phrase is fronted, which delays the mention of the verb and makes the sentence appear clumsy.\]

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NOTE: English typically follows subject/verb/object/complement

What is front-focus?

Placing the important/new information at the beginning of a sentence.

EXAMPLE:

Normal: He felt normal for once in his life.

Fronted: For once in his life, he felt normal.

What is clefting?

Moving elements that require prominence to the foreground of a sentence.

EXAMPLE:

It cleft: marks important elements using ‘it’ (It was Maggie who broke the lamp)

Pseudo/wh-cleft: uses relative pronoun to mark important elements (what was broken by Maggie was the lamp)

What is anaphoric reference?

A type of substitution that appears in text. The initial full phrase is the referent, and the replacement word is an anaphor.

EXAMPLE:

Charbel really enjoyed the slice of cake he was given.

‘He’ is the anaphor. \n

The use of the 3rd person pronoun ‘he’ to make anaphoric reference back to George in “George broke the car window… he was later fined” (lines 3-5), creates a semantic link between two sentences through the mutual reference, George, thus contributing to cohesion.

What is cataphoric reference?

Using substitution before the referent has been mentioned.

EXAMPLE:

As she felt a little cold, May put on her coat.

She is the cataphor to May. \n

Cataphoric referencing is used in lines 5-6, “He’s sweet, he’s strong, he’s handsome, he’s none other than… Channing Tatum!’, where the 2nd person personal pronoun ‘he’ is used to delay the mention of the referent, Channing Tatum, thus building suspense as the audience awaits who shall enter the stage.

What is diectics?

Substitution that requires contextual information to determine the referent of the substitution. The referent is not explicit in the text.

EXAMPLE:

“Hey where did you put that book you borrowed from me last week?”

“Over there (points towards a shelf.)”

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Given the program is broadcasted on television, where it is accompanied with visual cues, the cohesive device of deixis is frequently used (“I used to be this tall” line 3, “over there” - line 4), requiring viewers to make inferences and process paralinguistic cues to comprehend the full meaning of the discourse.

What is repetition?

Language device in which lexemes or phrases are used multiple times.

EXAMPLE:

Repetition of subject-specific lexis, such as “pollution” (lines 1, 3, 5), “global warming” (lines , 6, 7) and “carbon dioxide” (lines 4, 8), reinforces the subject matter at hand, and aids cohesion by linking various parts of the texts where the same referent is used.

What is synonymy?

The use of different but similar words for the same referent.

EXAMPLE:

The use of the synonyms ‘child’ and ‘student’’ in “The smart child amazed his teachers… The student was subsequently offered…” (Lines 4, 8) aids cohesion by linking these two sentences through the mention of the same referent.

What is antonymy?

Using lexemes with opposite meanings. Aids with clarification and helping the reader make sense of the passage, especially if they don’t understand the meaning of one lexeme provided.

EXAMPLES:

Cohesion is achieved through the use of antonymy, such as ‘soft’ and ‘hard’ in, “the avocado must be soft, not hard” (line 4), which helps reinforce the message by using semantically contrasting complements

What is hyponymy?

A stylistic device where a more specific lexeme is used rather than a more general lexeme

EXAMPLE:

Basil, oregano, and thyme are hyponyms of herb

Herb is the hypernym (also called superordinate)

What is collocation?

Words that regularly occur together

EXAMPLE:

Knife and fork, salt and pepper, hustle and bustle

What is ellipses?

Omitting elements of a clause or sentence to avoid repetition of known information.

EXAMPLE:

The ellipses of the subject ‘the flowers’ in the second main clause “the flowers were bright and yellow and \[the flowers\] stretched for miles” (lines 4-5) avoids repetition, thus contributing to the economy of expression, as well as aiding cohesion by linking the second main clause to the subject of the first main clause.

What is substitution?

Replacing an element or clause in a sentence with another one. Is a linking technique that relates sentences to one another.

EXAMPLE:

Noun phrases can be replaced with pronouns.

“James loves trains, so he collects them”

Can also be substituted using subordinates and hyponyms.

What are conjunctions?

Joining words that provide links between sentences or within sentences.

EXAMPLE:

Coordinating conjunctions: FANBOYS

What is an adverbial?

Umbrella term for a variety of lexemes or phrases that link clauses/sentences together and aid fluency.

EXAMPLE:

Temporal: create a time link (before, after)

Manner/degree: how (slowly, with great difficulty)

Spatial: link to a place/setting (in the garden)

Additive: add extra information (furthermore, besides, incidentally)

Adversative: create a contrast (however, nevertheless)

Causal: suggests one is a result of another (therefore, as a result)

What are the features of spoken discourse?

Pauses and pause fillers, false starts and repairs, repetition, adjacency pairs, overlapping speech, interrogative tags, discourse particles, topic management, holding passing and taking the floor, minimal responses (back-channelling)

What are pauses?

Short moments with no speech. May be present to allow time for a speaker to think about what to say next.

EXAMPLE:

The use of emphatic pauses, such as in line 2, “Every second, a child dies from famine… This has to stop… Now”, serves to alert listeners attention to the important lexeme ‘now’ to underscore the urgency of the issue, highlighting the gravity of the situation, and to provide listeners with a moment to reflect upon the significant of the received information.

What is a false start?

When a speaker begins talking and makes a mistake. Often combined with repairs.

What are repairs?

When a speaker begins talking, makes a mistake, and repeats what they wanted to say correctly.

EXAMPLE:

“Carly- no, I mean, Sure sorted out the payments.”

What are adjacency pairs?

Refer to the ritualistic or formulaic clauses or sentences that are conventionally used. Involve set questions and replies that each speaker takes turns in using.

EXAMPLE:

“Hey, how are you?” \n “I’m good, how about you?” \n “Yeah, not bad.”

The interlocutors demonstrate cooperative turn-taking, exemplified by their appropriate use of and response to conventional adjacency pairs. For instance, in line 3, Tony says "G'day how are ya?” to John, who replies appropriately with “Not bad, mate, yourself?” in line 4, thus facilitating a smooth conversation.

What is overlapping speech?

When two interlocutors say something at the same time. May be cooperative, or rude, etc.

EXAMPLE:

Bianca demonstrates that she is a cooperative interlocutor by providing minimal responses, such as ‘mm’ (line 2), when Amy speaks. Likewise, cooperative overlapping speech is evident in line 2 (“\[used\]\[cheated\]”), where Bianca aids her friend’s fluidity by helping her finish her sentence.

What are interrogative tags?

Reduced questions that are tacked on to the end of a declarative sentence. May indicate that the speaker is hesistant and seeking confirmation, or to invite the other interlocutor to seize the floor.

EXAMPLE:

The use of the interrogative tag, ‘isn’t she?’, in line 2 by Bob (“Amy is coming to the party, isn’t she?”) invites Ron to seize the floor and provide affirmation.

What are discourse particles?

‘Meaningless’ expressions that play a role in conversation. \n EXAMPLE:

Hedging, emphasis, quotative, reaction

Malcolm’s use of the hedging discourse marker ‘like’ in “Joe’s, like, 18 years old” (line 8) indicates a lack of certainty as to how old Joe really is. In addition, the discourse particles “yeah-no” and “sorta” are used in line 15 (“Yeah-no, I actually sorta think that it’d be better if we stayed home”) as a way of softening the disagreement, thereby appealing to the other interlocutor’s negative face needs.

What is hedging?

When a speaker is not sure about what they’re saying and wish to be non-commital about their words. Also used when asking a favour in order to appeal to someone’s negative face needs, because they convey uncertainty and indirectness.

EXAMPLE:

Oh, it was something like 5 bucks.

Would it be okay if I, like, maybe borrowed your book, please?

‘Like’ ‘maybe’

What is emphasis?

Draws attention to a specific lexeme.

EXAMPLE:

He’s like sooooo smart!

What is a quotative discourse particle?

Used to introduce direct speech.

EXAMPLE:

And he goes, “what the hell are you doing?”

‘Goes’ is the quotative

What is reaction?

Used to describe how someone responds (not what they say unlike quotatives)

EXAMPLE:

And he was like all in my face and angry and stuff.

‘Like’

What is topic management?

Involves the initiation of topics, topic development and topic change. Generally the person with more power will control the topic. Is important to ensure a smooth and coherent conversation.

EXAMPLE:

Owing to the fact that Victor is the host of the show, he acts as the topic manager, posing interrogatives (“So what’ve you been working on recently?” line 2) and using vocatives (“Ben, tell us about…” line 5) to invite others to seize the floor, ensuring the chance of overlap is kept to a minimum, thus contributing to the show’s entertainment value.

What is turn-taking?

An interlocutor may take the floor, given that another interlocutor is not speaking at the time. They may choose to keep it by using pause fillers, rising intonation, etc. They may relinquish the floor by using falling intonation, or through interrogatives or vocatives.

What are openings?

Used to grab the attention of listeners, indicates that a speaker would like an extended turn. Either salutations or vocatives.

EXAMPLE:

Salutations ‘hi’ ‘good morning’

Vocatives ‘Sally’ ‘ladies and gentlemen’

What are closings?

Used to signal the end of a conversation. Usually contain phatic elements and are formulaic in some way.

EXAMPLES:

“Well, I’d better get going…” “See ya” “bye” “goodnight”

What are non-fluency features?

Pauses, filled pauses/voiced hesitations, false starts, repetitions, repairs

What are filled pauses/voiced hesitations?

Words such as ‘um’ ‘ah’ and ‘er’. Common indicators of hesitation or thinking.

What are minimal responses/back-channeling?

Short sounds that indicate to the speaker that you are listening. Using them demonstrates that you are a cooperative interlocutor, and helps build rapport between you and the other speaker by appealing to their positive face needs.

EXAMPLE:

Mandy appeals to Felicia’s positive face needs by providing reassurance that she is listening through back-channeling: “mm” (2, 3) “yes” (4, 6), “definitely” (9, 14)