Studied by 7 people
What is Loftus (1978) about? What is the key term?
Reconstruction
Aim: To investigate is verbal post-event informatino can be integrated with the visual information orignally obtained.
Design: Lab experiment, independent samples
Participants + Sampling Method: 195 undergraduates, opportunity
Procedure:
1. Opportunity sample
2. Participants are split into 4 groups. 2 groups are shown a slideshow where a red Datson turned right at an intersection with a stop sign and hit a pedestrain. The other 2 groups are shown the same slides that feature a yeild sign rather than a stop sign.
3. Participants are then given a forced-choice recognition test. Groups 1 and 4 are given correct post-event information.
Groups 2 and 3 are given misleading post-event information.
Results:
Groups 1 and 4 were correct 75% of the time and wrong 25% in others.
Groups 2 and 3 were correct 41% of the time and wrong 59% in others.
Misleading post-event verbal information can become integrated preformance on visual repetition tasks/tests.
Loftus (1978) bolded vs not bolded questions
BOLDED:
How fast were the vehicles travelling when they SMASHED into each other?
Did you see THE broken glass?
NOT BOLDED:
How fast were the vehicles travelling when they CONTACTED each other?
Did you see broken glass?
How can you manipulate eyewitness testimonies?
Use different wording and/or phrases.
Asking a leading question.
Baddeley (1974) working memory model and theory
Do not employ Baddeley for a schema question
Central Executive
1. Phonological Loop
2. Episodic Buffer
3. Visual-Spatial Sketchpad
The Working Memory Theory:
The three slave systems work on their own to process the information. Then, the central executive combines all the systems to create and store the information as knowledge.
What is Stone (1977) about? What is the key term?
Bias
Aim: To investigate an individual racial stereotype (confirmation bias)
Design: Lab experiment, independent samples
Participants + Sampling Method: 51 Princeton undergraduates, opportunity
Procedure
1. Opportunity sample
2. Participants listened to a 20 minute recording (with a written transcript) of a college basketball game. They were also given a name and number to listen for? Afterwards, one group was shown a picture of a white athlete and the other group was shown a picture of a black athlete and were told to evaluate the players natural ability, performance, and contribution on a questionaire
3. ICA
Results
The white athlete was evaluated to have helped using intelligence. The black athlete was evaluated to have helped using athletic ability.
Results were consistent with the stereotypes that are discussed in sports an media. This can be explained by confirmation bias.
Stone (1977) criticisms
Ecological validity issues, lab experiments are sterile and don't represent the real world (general criticism of a lab experiment), participant generalization, structured interview could have been leading/prompting
What is Cain (2016) about? What is the key word?
Digital World
Aim: To investigate the relationship between media/technology use and the world memory capacity (all slave systems)
Design: Correlation
Participants + Sampling Method: 74 Boston 8th graders, convenience
Procedure + Results:
1. Convenience sample
2. Participants were given a questionnaire regarding their media usage
3. ICA
Results:
A negative correlation was found between working memory capacity and technology usage.
What is Klingberg (2005) about? What is they key term?
Digital World
Aim: To investigate the relationship between media/technology use and the world memory capacity (all slave systems)
Design: Correlation
Participants + Sampling Method: 42 kids with ADHD, purposive
Procedure
1. Purposive sample
2. Participants were split into 2 groups and each group was assigned a game (group 1 got game 1, group 2 got game 2)
Results:
A positive correlation was found between working memory capacity and technology usage.
What is Brown and Kulik (1977) about? What is the key term?
Emotion
Aim: Are emotionally charged events recalled more accurately?
Design: Semi-Struc interview
Participants + Sampling Method: 40 white and 40 black participants, purposive
Procedure + Results:
1. Purposive sample
2. White participants were given a survey regarding JFK's death. Black participants were given a survey regarding MLK's death.
3. ICA
Results
Who, what, where, and emotional state are remembered during episodic memory
What is Neissar and Harsch (1992) about? What is the key term?
Emotion
Aim: Are emotionally charged events recalled more accurately after a period of time?
Design: Semi-Struc interview
Participants + Sampling Method: 106 college freshman psych students, opportunity
Procedure:
1. Opportunity sample
2. The day after the challenger spacecraft exploded, 106 freshmen psych students were given a 7-question survey regarding how they felt/emotional state, how they found out, where they were, ext. After 2 1/2 years, 44 of those same participants were given the same survey.
3. ICA
Results
11/44 scored a 0 (compared to their original survey)
22/44 scored less than 2
Mean was 3/7
Confidence scale was 4/5
What is Flashbulb Memory?
Episodic buffer --> Episodic memory
Flashbulb Memory is a reconstructed memory where the emotional importance of the event may influence the way the memory is reconstructed, particularly if it is discussed with other people over time (CONFABULATION) or if the memory does not have a particular personal relevance.
Why would Loftus criticize flashbulb memory?
Misleading post-event information can manipulate a persons visual memory of the event.
What criticisms did Neisser and Harsch have towards Brown and Kulik's idea of Flashbulb Memory?
Certain memories are vivid because they are rehearsed and discussed after the event
What is Kahneman and Tversky (1974) about? What is the key word?
Decision Making
Aim: Are there two systems of thinking and decision-making?
Design: Lab experiment with a single post-test. Also administered with a structured interview (thought experiment)
Participants + Sampling Method: 95 participants, opportunity
Procedure
1. Opportunity sample
2. Thought experiment
3. ICA
Results
Two systems of decision-making: Intuitive (fast, system one) and Controlled Rational (slow, system two)
Kahneman and Tversky Thought experiment
"In a town with two hospitals, the larger hospital has about 45 babies born every day, and the smaller hospital has about 15 babies born every day. As you know, about 50% of all babies are born. However, the exact percentage varies from day to day. Over a one-year period, each hospital recorded the days on which more than 60% of babies born were boys. Which hospital do you think recorded more such days?"
A. The larger hospital
B. The smaller hospital
C. About the same (within 5% of each other)
The correct answer is the smaller hospital because statistical probability suggests that the larger the sample size, the closer it will get to the average so it is more likely that a smaller hospital will have a higher amount of disproportionate days.
78% of participants got this wrong, with 56% answering "about the same".
What does answer C from the Kahneman and Tversky study represent?
System thinking.
System One (fast) is intuitive over controlled rational thinking. System Two (slow) is controlled rational thinking over intuitive.
Kahneman and Tversky (1974) criticisms
Expectation for participants to either show the concept of regression to the mean, or be able to deduce that from the thought experiment.
What is Ross and Millsom (1970) about? What is the key word?
Schemas/Culture & Working Memory
Aim: To investigate how a culture's emphasis on how information is taught can influence how information is recalled.
Design: Quasi experiment, independent samples
Participants: Students from a college in Ghana and students from NYU, purposive
Procedure:
1. Purposive sampling method
2. Students from two colleges were read "War of the Ghosts" in English. 16 days later, they were told to recall (in writing) as much of they story that they could.
Results
Ghanaians could remember themes 80% better than the New YorkersGhanaians could remember words 70% better than the New Yorkers.
What is Kearins (1981) about? What is the key word?
Schemas/Culture & Working Memory
Aim: To investigate if Aborigines would perform better on tests that took advantage of their ability to encode with visual cues.Design:Participants: 44 Aborigines and 44 white Australian adolescents, purposive
Procedure:
1. Purposive sampling method
2. Kearins placed 20 objects on a board with 20 divided sections (a grid) and told the Aborigines and Australians to study where the objects were on the board for 30 seconds. After 30 seconds, Kearins moved the objects to a pile in the middle of the grid and told the participants to put the objects back in their original spots. This test was run four times with different objects for each test.
Results
The Aborigines did better on every test run due to being taught visual cues/growing up in a visual environment
Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968)
Cognitive Memory Model
Sensory Memory --> Short Term Memory --> Long Term Memory
Glanzer and Cunitz (1966)
Aim: To what extent does the recency effect last?
Design: Lab experiment, independent samples design
Participants + Sampling method: 46 army enlisted men, convenience
Procedure:
1. Convenience sample
2. Both groups are read the same word list. The control group hears the list and then recalls any words that they remember back to the researcher. The experimental group hears the list and then are told to count backwards from 30 (filler task, IV), and then recall any words that they remember.
Results:
Recency effect, phonological loop, decay after 30 seconds
DV: Recall
IV: Interference/Filler Task
Note
Flashcard