Chapter 5: Immigrants, Refugees, and the Acculturation Process

What is acculturation?

Acculturation is the process of change that happens when people from different cultures come into contact. They may adopt new behaviors, customs, or ways of thinking as a result.

Why can the process of acculturation be difficult?

The process of acculturation can be challenging because it involves a range of experiences that affect people differently over time.

What areas of life does acculturation often impact?

Acculturation tends to have a strong impact on social relationships, economic opportunities, and psychological well-being.

Why did Sylvia from the Philippines change her accent and social circle?

Sylvia wanted to be American and felt pressure to fit in. She removed her accent by watching TV to sound "White," and her parents were proud that most of her friends were White.

Can acculturation happen within the same country?

Yes, acculturation can occur within national groups, such as through cross-ethnic interactions in the U.S.

What can happen when someone lives in a host culture?

Living in a host culture can lead to acculturation and may also cause acculturative stress.

What challenges do people face growing up in a multicultural community?

People in multicultural communities often face developmental, societal, and economic challenges as they grow up.

What makes growing up in a different country especially difficult?

Growing up in a different country can be especially difficult due to unfamiliar norms and the need to adjust to a new culture.

What areas of life are involved in the acculturation process?

The acculturation process often involves changes in language, social norms, education, and the family system.

What two types of migration did Hong and Ham (2001) identify?

Hong and Ham (2001) identified two types of migration: (1) the flight of refugees fleeing persecution, imprisonment, or death, and (2) the voluntary departure of individuals moving to another country for other reasons.

Why do people have different acculturation experiences?

People have different acculturation experiences because their reasons for migrating vary. Refugees and voluntary migrants often face different types of stress and adjustment challenges based on how and why they moved.

What challenges arise when people don't distinguish between immigrants, refugees, and Americans with similar ethnic backgrounds?

When people don't make these distinctions, it can lead to misunderstandings and assumptions. This can worsen challenges like language barriers, acculturative stress, lack of support networks, shifts in family roles or hierarchies, and difficulties with employment.

Who are immigrants and how do they prepare for migration?

Immigrants are people who voluntarily move to another country. The decision to move may take weeks, months, or years, allowing them time to prepare and begin the acculturation process before they leave.

What are common characteristics of voluntary immigrants' migration experiences?

Voluntary immigrants usually have time to plan their move, often motivated by goals like improving life for their families or earning a better salary. They may already have a job lined up or support to find one. Social support is often more accessible, with ongoing contact with family and the possibility of visits, returning home, or even splitting time between countries.

What additional challenges might some immigrants face during migration?

Some immigrants may migrate due to dangers like drug trafficking or interpersonal violence, experiencing trauma along the way. They may have to adapt to multiple environments during migration and often struggle with feeling out of place or missing the sense of being "at home."

Who are refugees and how does their migration differ from immigrants?

Refugees are people who are forced to leave their homelands due to war or political oppression, often fleeing perceived or actual violence. Their decision to move is usually immediate—within days, hours, or even minutes—leaving little to no time for preparation or starting the acculturation process.

What challenges do refugees often face during and after forced migration?

Refugees often face extreme uncertainty, not knowing where they will resettle. They have no time to prepare or begin acculturation. Families may be separated, and some people die during their escape without proper burial. Refugees may encounter violence, discrimination, and cultural ignorance during migration. In host countries, they can suffer emotional and physical harm, often working in poor conditions with low, under-the-table pay.

What is the predeparture stage in the refugee experience?

The predeparture stage is when refugees are forced to leave their home due to conditions like war, revolution, or natural disasters.

What happens during the flight stage of the refugee experience?

During the flight stage, refugees leave their home with uncertainty and little knowledge of where they will end up, only knowing they must escape.

What is the first asylum stage for refugees?

The first asylum stage is where refugees settle temporarily in a place they feel safe, though the conditions may still be unstable and vary greatly depending on the location.

What does the claimant stage involve in the refugee process?

The claimant stage is when refugees apply for asylum in a country. They may be allowed to stay temporarily but can still face deportation.

What is the settlement stage for refugees?

The settlement stage is when a country formally accepts the refugees and offers them legal residence.

What is the adaptation stage in the refugee experience?

The adaptation stage involves the adjustments refugees make to fit into their host country's culture, language, and systems.

How are immigrants and refugees often treated similarly despite their differences?

Although immigrants and refugees have very different reasons and processes for migration, host countries often fail to distinguish between them. Instead, convenient labels are used to support discriminatory views or policies.

How are labels used to support anti-immigration or anti-refugee stances?

Targeted groups may be labeled as immigrants to justify restricting immigration, or as refugees to argue against using tax dollars for their support—implying that freedom alone should be enough.

How has Asian migration to the U.S. been historically received?

Asian migration to the U.S. has often faced resistance and racism. According to Mio et al. (2007), Asian migrants have historically been met with discrimination and exclusion.

What was the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882?

The Chinese Exclusion Act was a U.S. law passed in 1882 that prohibited further immigration of Chinese people after they had helped build the railroads in the mid-1800s.

What was "The Gentleman's Agreement" and how did it affect Asian immigration?

"The Gentleman's Agreement" was an informal early 1900s agreement in which Asian countries agreed not to allow their citizens to immigrate to the U.S. It reflected efforts to limit Asian migration.

What did the Immigration Act of 1924 do regarding Asian immigration?

The Immigration Act of 1924 limited immigration from Asian countries to just 100 people while allowing tens of thousands from European countries. According to Mio et al. (2007), individuals of discernible Asian ancestry were effectively barred from immigrating, though British ex-patriots living in Asia were still allowed.

How are people of Asian ancestry often treated in the U.S., even if born there?

People of Asian ancestry are often seen as perpetual foreigners, regardless of being born in the U.S. or holding citizenship. Lee (2009) notes that this stereotype can lead to feelings of exclusion and being treated as outsiders in their own country.

How did Patrice, a 20-year-old Chinese woman, describe her experience growing up in the U.S.?

Patrice shared that although she was born and raised in America, many people still stereotype her as a foreigner. She expressed frustration about feeling like an outcast in her own home and questioned why it's so hard to be accepted in a country that calls itself a "melting pot."

What challenges can arise from language barriers during acculturation?

Language barriers can be difficult to overcome and may lead to misunderstandings or isolation, especially for individuals new to the culture.

How do older and younger generations differ in coping with cultural communication styles?

Younger generations often adapt more easily to the direct communication style common in American culture, while older generations may find it rude or insensitive. This can create tension and cause the older generation to depend more heavily on the younger generation.

What challenges do migrants face when they don't speak the host country's language?

Migrants with little or no exposure to the host country's language often struggle with daily communication. This can lead to feelings of alienation, insecurity, or distrust, especially among older generations.

How does language dependence affect families across generations?

Older generations may rely heavily on younger family members to communicate, which can make youth feel overly responsible. This may also lead to a loss of connection with the native language and culture.

How is English fluency viewed within immigrant and refugee communities, according to Mio and colleagues?

Mio and colleagues noted that fluency in English is often seen as a mark of a better person within these groups. Whether someone is a refugee or an immigrant, having a less pronounced accent can lead to more privilege and social acceptance.

What example illustrates the link between accent and privilege?

Sylvia from the Philippines is an example—she worked to remove her accent in order to sound "White," which reflected the pressure to assimilate and gain acceptance.

What do some immigrants and refugees do when they struggle with language barriers in the mainstream?

When facing language barriers, some individuals choose to move to areas where others from their cultural background live. These places become safe havens and offer a sense of connection and community.

What is a potential downside of settling in ethnic enclaves?

While these communities provide comfort and support, they can also lead to further isolation from the mainstream and increase the risk of facing discrimination.

Why is a support network important for immigrants and refugees?

A strong support network is essential for helping immigrants and refugees manage the acculturation process. Without it, they may experience high levels of stress, anxiety, depression, and even marital conflict.

Why might immigrants or refugees avoid using community resources?

Some avoid community resources due to fear of humiliation, language barriers, or feeling different from the majority culture. This can lead to further alienation and isolation.

How can acculturation affect language, social support, and family structure?

Acculturation can create struggles with language and social contact, and often leads to shifts in family structure. Decision-making power and family hierarchy may change, especially when older members face language barriers and depend more on younger ones.

How did Pablo's family experience acculturation challenges after immigrating to the U.S.?

Pablo's family faced several challenges during the acculturation process. His parents struggled with language barriers that affected job opportunities, and his siblings experienced different levels of impact. He felt that the U.S. "ate them alive."

How did acculturation affect family hierarchy in Pablo's (Mexican Immigrant) story?

The family's hierarchy shifted as the father lost his role as primary breadwinner and the mother began contributing equally. This led to tension and issues with respect.

What identity changes occurred in Pablo's (Mexican Immigrant) family after migration?

Pablo described a disconnect in his family's identity, saying, "we are not the same people we were before we moved." His brothers even joined a gang, showing how acculturation affected their sense of self and belonging.

How can U.S. cultural values affect immigrant and refugee family hierarchies?

The U.S. is primarily individualistic and egalitarian, which can create tension for immigrants and refugees from cultures with strong family hierarchies. These differences may disrupt traditional roles within families.

What cultural conflict may arise for families led by mothers in their home country?

In cultures where mothers are the head of household, adjusting to the U.S.'s patriarchal norms and individualistic values can be challenging, potentially leading to role conflicts and stress within the family.

How do some Western cultures differ in their view of family hierarchy, according to Mio?

Mio noted that while many people from Western cultures share the U.S. values of hierarchy and individualism, some still hold deep respect for the mother as the central figure in the family, viewing her as the "root of the oak."

How have gender roles shifted for immigrant families in the U.S.?

In many immigrant families, traditional roles shift as men are no longer the sole breadwinners and must share childcare and housekeeping responsibilities. Women often take on multiple roles, balancing work, caregiving, and household duties—leading to the expectation of being a "supermom."

How do migrating grandparents often experience family life in the host country?

Grandparents who migrate later in life may feel like strangers in their own families, as children and grandchildren are often busy with their own lives. While they may help with babysitting, they are not revered as they were in their home country.

How does migration affect children in immigrant families?

Children often take on more responsibilities than they had before migration, which can create stress and shift family dynamics.

What can happen when rigid family boundaries don't adapt post-migration?

If family roles and boundaries remain rigid and don't adjust to new demands, it can lead to dysfunction and breakdowns in relationships.

What example illustrates these challenges?

Ed and Nancy, who immigrated from Japan, experienced these difficulties within their family structure after migration.

What reasons do immigrants often give for moving to the U.S., according to Hong & Ham (2001)?

Hong & Ham (2001) note that immigrants often move to the U.S. seeking greater freedom, a more stable political environment, and better opportunities for their children.

What challenges do immigrants face after settling in the U.S.?

After settling, many immigrants face prolonged low-income employment, underemployment, and limited opportunities for growth—especially when working within ethnic communities. They may also experience discrimination based on limited English skills or physical characteristics.

How does education level affect employment opportunities for immigrants and refugees?

Education can impact employment options, but even immigrants with advanced degrees may face problems if their credentials aren't recognized in the U.S. Others with limited education may struggle even more to find work.

What example shows the difficulty of using foreign degrees in the U.S.?

Andy, who had a degree in chemical engineering, was told it would be easier to get a job in the U.S. However, his degree wasn't accepted, and he couldn't return to school for re-certification. This left him with few options, including possibly returning to his home country.

What is Berry's Model of Acculturation?

Berry's Model of Acculturation outlines four strategies individuals use when adapting to a new culture: integration, assimilation, separation, and marginalization. Each strategy reflects how much individuals maintain their original culture and how much they adopt the host culture.

Who is considered an assimilationist in Berry's Model of Acculturation?

An assimilationist is someone who gives up their original cultural identity to adopt the values and beliefs of the host culture. This often includes becoming "Americanized" in the U.S., with the belief that being "like everyone else" leads to greater acceptance and privilege.

What example illustrates the assimilationist experience?

The story of Sanjay and his cousins shows this process. They distanced themselves from their cultural roots to fit into the host culture more fully.

Who is considered a separationist in Berry's Model of Acculturation?

A separationist is someone who strongly identifies with their original culture and rejects the values and beliefs of the host culture. Even when faced with the host culture daily, they refuse to adopt it, often due to experiences of discrimination or a desire to protect their cultural identity.

What motivates a separationist to avoid integration?

Motivation may include past experiences with discrimination, a strong commitment to cultural preservation, or a desire to avoid the perceived pressure or judgment from the host society.

Who is considered a marginalist in Berry's Model of Acculturation?

A marginalist is someone who does not identify with either their original culture or the host culture. They often create their own group with separate norms and values, forming a new identity outside both societies.

How do marginalists typically relate to society?

Marginalists are often seen as outcasts who have turned their backs on society—partly because society has done the same to them. They may find connection by forming chosen families or communities that accept them for who they are.

Who is considered an integrationist (bicultural) in Berry's Model of Acculturation?

An integrationist, or bicultural individual, blends aspects of their original culture with those of the host culture. They make the best of both worlds, often functioning well in the host society while still relating comfortably to their own cultural group.

Why is the integrationist strategy considered the most balanced?

Integrationists tend to be the most well-balanced and happiest among the four groups because they can navigate both cultures effectively and flexibly.

What is LaFromboise et al.'s Model of Acculturation for American Indians?

LaFromboise et al.'s Model describes five ways American Indians may experience acculturation: assimilation, acculturated, fusion, alternation, and multiculturalism. Each strategy reflects different ways of relating to both the original and dominant cultures.

What is the assimilation strategy in LaFromboise et al.'s Model of Acculturation?

Assimilation involves fully adopting the dominant culture and abandoning one's original cultural identity.

What does it mean to be acculturated in LaFromboise et al.'s Model?

Being acculturated means functioning well in the dominant culture while maintaining aspects of the original culture, though the dominant culture takes priority.

What is the fusion strategy in LaFromboise et al.'s Model of Acculturation?

Fusion refers to blending elements of both the original and dominant cultures to form a new, unified culture.

What is the alternation strategy in LaFromboise et al.'s Model of Acculturation?

Alternation involves switching between cultural identities depending on the situation, with the ability to function comfortably in both.

What does the multicultural strategy mean in LaFromboise et al.'s Model?

Multiculturalism means maintaining and valuing multiple cultural identities equally, without prioritizing one over the other.

What is the premigration period in the acculturation process?

The premigration period is the time before migration when individuals may begin mentally and emotionally preparing for the move and starting the acculturation process.

What is the migration period in the acculturation process?

The migration period occurs during the actual move from the country of origin to the host country. It includes final goodbyes and the emotional weight of leaving behind family, friends, and familiar surroundings.

What is the postmigration period in the acculturation process?

The postmigration period begins after settling in the host country, when individuals face ongoing stress and begin adjusting to the new culture and environment.

What is ecological fit or ecological context in acculturation?

Ecological fit refers to how similar the social and cultural environments are between an immigrant's country of origin and the new host country. Greater similarity can make adjustment easier.

What is the microsystem in ecological context?

The microsystem includes close relationships within the household, such as interactions among family members.

What is the mesosystem in ecological context?

The mesosystem includes relationships just outside the home, like those with schools, workplaces, extended family, and the local community.

What is the exosystem in ecological context?

The exosystem includes larger societal institutions that influence daily life, such as the media and government.

What is the macrosystem in ecological context?

The macrosystem consists of broad cultural norms and societal rules that