HIST 1301 MIDTERM EXAM

all key terms (almost) and primary sources

Hunter-Gatherers

• Definition: Early humans who survived by hunting animals and gathering wild plants, rather than farming.

• Time Period: Pre-agricultural societies; Paleolithic Era to early Neolithic (~2.5 million years ago to ~10,000 BCE).

• Historical Context: Before the development of agriculture, human societies were nomadic and relied on natural resources for sustenance.

• Significance: Their transition to agriculture marked the beginning of settled civilizations, laying the foundation for complex societies in the Americas and globally.

The Corn Mother

• Definition: A mythological figure in Native American traditions symbolizing the origin of maize and agricultural abundance.

• Time Period: Indigenous oral traditions, especially among Eastern Woodlands tribes; pre-contact era.

• Historical Context: Corn was central to Native American agriculture and spirituality. The Corn Mother myth reflects the sacred relationship between people and the land.

• Significance: Highlights Indigenous agricultural innovation and spiritual worldview before European colonization.

Black Legend

• Definition: A narrative that portrayed Spanish colonizers as uniquely brutal and tyrannical, especially toward Indigenous peoples.

• Time Period: Originated in the 16th century; popularized in the 17th–19th centuries.

• Historical Context: Fueled by Protestant and English propaganda during colonial competition, especially against Catholic Spain.

• Significance: Influenced Anglo-American attitudes toward Spain and justified English colonization as more "benevolent".

Bartolomé de Las Casas

• Definition: A Spanish Dominican friar and historian who advocated for Indigenous rights and condemned Spanish atrocities.

• Time Period: Active in the early to mid-1500s; published major works in the 1540s.

• Historical Context: Witnessed the brutal treatment of Native peoples under the encomienda system and became a vocal critic.

• Significance: His writings helped shape the Black Legend and influenced reforms in Spanish colonial policy

Mestizo

• Definition: A person of mixed European and Indigenous ancestry, common in Spanish colonial societies.

• Time Period: Emerged during the 16th century and became a dominant social group by the 18th century.

• Historical Context: Resulted from intermarriage and cultural blending in New Spain; part of the casta system.

• Significance: Mestizos played a key role in shaping Latin American identity and colonial labor systems.

Mayflower Compact

• Definition: A 1620 agreement among Pilgrims to form a self-governing community based on majority rule.

• Time Period: Signed November 11, 1620.

• Historical Context: Drafted aboard the Mayflower after landing outside the jurisdiction of their original charter.

• Significance: First written framework for self-government in the English colonies; a foundational democratic precedent.

"City on a Hill"

• Definition: A metaphor used by John Winthrop in 1630 to describe the Puritan vision of a model Christian society.

• Time Period: 1630, during the founding of the Massachusetts Bay Colony.

• Historical Context: Puritans sought to build a godly community that would serve as an example to the world.

• Significance: Became a symbol of American exceptionalism and moral leadership in later political rhetoric

Roger Williams

• Definition: A Puritan minister who founded Rhode Island and championed religious freedom and separation of church and state.

• Time Period: Active in the 1630s–1680s; founded Providence in 1636.

• Historical Context: Banished from Massachusetts Bay for his radical views on religious liberty and Native land rights.

• Significance: His ideas influenced the First Amendment and helped establish Rhode Island as a haven for dissenters.

Anne Hutchinson

• Definition: A Puritan spiritual advisor who challenged clerical authority and was exiled for her religious beliefs.

• Time Period: Active in Massachusetts Bay Colony in the 1630s; banished in 1637.

• Historical Context: Held meetings promoting “covenant of grace” over “covenant of works,” defying male-dominated religious norms.

• Significance: Early advocate for religious freedom and women's roles in spiritual life; helped found Portsmouth, Rhode Island.

Great Awakening

• Definition: A series of religious revivals in the 1730s–1740s that emphasized emotional faith and personal salvation.

• Time Period: First Great Awakening: ~1730s–1750s.

• Historical Context: Reaction to Enlightenment rationalism and declining church attendance; led by figures like Jonathan Edwards and George Whitefield.

• Significance: Democratized religion, challenged established churches, and laid groundwork for revolutionary ideas of equality and individual rights.

Salem Witch Trials

• Definition: A series of hearings and prosecutions of people accused of witchcraft in colonial Massachusetts.

• Time Period: 1692–1693.

• Historical Context: Fueled by religious fervor, social tensions, and fear of the devil; Puritan society was deeply concerned with moral purity.

• Significance: Exposed dangers of mass hysteria and injustice; became a cautionary tale about the abuse of legal and religious authority.

Indentured Servitude

• Definition: A labor system where individuals worked for a set number of years in exchange for passage to the colonies.

• Time Period: 1600s–early 1700s.

• Historical Context: Common in English colonies, especially Virginia and Maryland, before African slavery became dominant.

• Significance: Provided labor for colonial economies; highlighted class tensions and led to unrest like Bacon’s Rebellion.

Bacon's Rebellion

• Definition: A 1676 uprising led by Nathaniel Bacon against Virginia’s colonial government.

• Time Period: 1676.

• Historical Context: Sparked by frontier settlers’ frustrations over Native American attacks and perceived government inaction.

• Significance: Revealed deep class divisions and contributed to the shift from indentured servitude to racialized slavery.

Middle Passage

• Definition: The transatlantic journey enslaved Africans endured between Africa and the Americas.

• Time Period: 16th–19th centuries; peak in the 1700s.

• Historical Context: Part of the triangular trade; conditions were horrific, with high mortality rates.

• Significance: Central to the development of the Atlantic slave economy; shaped African American history and trauma.

Olaydah Equiano

• Definition: A formerly enslaved African who wrote a powerful autobiography detailing his experiences.

• Time Period: Published his narrative in 1789.

• Historical Context: His account provided firsthand insight into slavery and the Middle Passage.

• Significance: Influenced abolitionist movements in Britain and America; challenged pro-slavery narratives.

Ayuba Suleiman Diallo

• Definition: A Muslim African nobleman enslaved in the Americas who later regained his freedom.

• Time Period: Enslaved in 1731; returned to Africa in 1734.

• Historical Context: His story was documented by British allies and highlighted the complexity of African identities.

• Significance: Humanized enslaved Africans to European audiences; contributed to early critiques of slavery.

Albany Plan

• Definition: A 1754 proposal by Benjamin Franklin to unite the colonies under a central government for defense.

• Time Period: 1754.

• Historical Context: Proposed during the French and Indian War to coordinate colonial defense.

• Significance: First formal attempt at colonial unity; foreshadowed later efforts like the Continental Congress.

The Enlightenment

• Definition: An intellectual movement emphasizing reason, science, and individual rights.

• Time Period: 17th–18th centuries.

• Historical Context: Influenced colonial leaders and thinkers like Jefferson, Franklin, and Paine.

• Significance: Shaped revolutionary ideas about government, liberty, and natural rights; foundational to American political philosophy.

Stamp Act

• Definition: A 1765 British law taxing printed materials in the colonies.

• Time Period: 1765.

• Historical Context: Part of Britain’s effort to raise revenue after the French and Indian War.

• Significance: Sparked widespread protest and the slogan “no taxation without representation”; united colonists in resistance.

Boston Massacre

• Definition: A deadly confrontation between British soldiers and colonists in Boston.

• Time Period: March 5, 1770.

• Historical Context: Tensions over British military presence and colonial unrest led to violence.

• Significance: Used as propaganda by Patriots to fuel anti-British sentiment; escalated toward revolution.

“Common Sense” by Thomas Paine

• Definition: A pamphlet published in 1776 advocating American independence from Britain.

• Time Period: January 1776.

• Historical Context: Written during rising tensions between the colonies and Britain; Paine used plain language to appeal to common people.

• Significance: Galvanized public support for independence; widely read and influential in shaping revolutionary sentiment.

Declaration of Independence

• Definition: A formal statement declaring the American colonies’ separation from Britain.

• Time Period: Adopted July 4, 1776.

• Historical Context: Drafted by Thomas Jefferson and approved by the Continental Congress amid the Revolutionary War.

• Significance: Established foundational American ideals of liberty and self-government; justified rebellion and inspired future democratic movements.

Articles of Confederation

Articles of Confederation

• Definition: The first constitution of the United States, creating a loose confederation of states.

• Time Period: Ratified in 1781; in effect until 1789.

• Historical Context: Created during the Revolutionary War to unify the colonies under a national government.

• Significance: Demonstrated the challenges of weak central authority; its limitations led to the drafting of the U.S. Constitution.

Northwest Ordinance

• Definition: A 1787 law establishing governance for the Northwest Territory and outlining the process for admitting new states.

• Time Period: 1787.

• Historical Context: Passed under the Articles of Confederation to organize western expansion.

• Significance: Set precedent for orderly expansion and banned slavery in the Northwest Territory; promoted public education and civil liberties.

Shay's Rebellion

• Definition: A 1786–87 uprising of Massachusetts farmers protesting debt and taxation.

• Time Period: 1786–1787.

• Historical Context: Led by Daniel Shays, the rebellion exposed weaknesses in the Articles of Confederation.

• Significance: Alarmed national leaders and prompted calls for a stronger federal government, leading to the Constitutional Convention.

3/5ths Compromise

• Definition: A constitutional agreement counting enslaved individuals as three-fifths of a person for representation and taxation.

• Time Period: 1787, during the Constitutional Convention.

• Historical Context: Resolved disputes between northern and southern states over political representation.

• Significance: Institutionalized slavery in the Constitution; reflected deep sectional divisions that would later lead to conflict.

Bill of Rights

• Definition: The first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution, guaranteeing individual liberties.

• Time Period: Ratified in 1791.

• Historical Context: Added to appease Anti-Federalists concerned about federal power.

• Significance: Became a cornerstone of American democracy; protects freedoms like speech, religion, and due process.

Whiskey Rebellion

• Definition: A 1794 protest against a federal excise tax on whiskey.

• Time Period: 1791–1794.

• Historical Context: Western Pennsylvania farmers resisted the tax, testing federal authority under the new Constitution.

• Significance: Washington’s response affirmed the power of the federal government to enforce laws; contrasted with the weak response to Shays’ Rebellion.

Alien and Sedition Acts

• Definition: A series of laws passed in 1798 that restricted speech and targeted immigrants.

• Time Period: 1798.

• Historical Context: Enacted during tensions with France and fears of internal dissent under President John Adams.

• Significance: Sparked backlash and debates over civil liberties; contributed to the rise of the Democratic-Republican Party.

Louisiana Purchase

• Definition: The 1803 acquisition of French territory west of the Mississippi River by the United States.

• Time Period: 1803.

• Historical Context: Negotiated by President Thomas Jefferson; doubled the size of the U.S.

• Significance: Expanded U.S. territory dramatically; raised constitutional questions and boosted Jefferson’s popularity.

Lewis and Clark

• Definition: Explorers commissioned by President Jefferson to map and report on the newly acquired Louisiana Territory.

• Time Period: Expedition lasted from 1804 to 1806.

• Historical Context: Following the Louisiana Purchase, Jefferson wanted to understand the geography, resources, and Native tribes of the West.

• Significance: Their journey expanded American knowledge of the continent, strengthened claims to western lands, and inspired further exploration.

Barbary wars

• Definition: Naval conflicts between the U.S. and North African states over piracy and tribute demands.

• Time Period: First Barbary War (1801–1805); Second Barbary War (1815).

• Historical Context: Barbary pirates demanded tribute from American ships; Jefferson refused to pay and sent the Navy.

• Significance: Asserted U.S. naval power and independence; marked America’s first overseas military engagement.

Tecumseh

• Definition: A Shawnee leader who sought to unite Native tribes against U.S. expansion.

• Time Period: Active in the early 1800s; died in 1813.

• Historical Context: Opposed American encroachment on Native lands; allied with the British during the War of 1812.

• Significance: Symbol of Native resistance; his death marked the decline of organized Indigenous opposition in the Old Northwest.

Battle of Tippecanoe

• Definition: A 1811 battle between U.S. forces led by William Henry Harrison and Tecumseh’s confederacy.

• Time Period: November 7, 1811.

• Historical Context: Precursor to the War of 1812; Tecumseh was away, and his brother (the Prophet) led the defense.

• Significance: Weakened Native resistance and increased American support for war with Britain.

Francis Scott Key

• Definition: American lawyer and poet who wrote “The Star-Spangled Banner.”

• Time Period: Wrote the poem in 1814 during the War of 1812.

• Historical Context: Inspired by the defense of Fort McHenry against British bombardment.

• Significance: His poem became a symbol of American resilience and was later adopted as the national anthem.

Battle of New Orleans

• Definition: A major U.S. victory against the British in the War of 1812, led by Andrew Jackson.

• Time Period: January 8, 1815.

• Historical Context: Fought after the Treaty of Ghent was signed but before news reached the battlefield.

• Significance: Boosted national pride and Jackson’s popularity; reinforced American sovereignty.

Treaty of Ghent

• Definition: The peace treaty that ended the War of 1812 between the U.S. and Britain.

• Time Period: Signed December 24, 1814.

• Historical Context: Restored pre-war boundaries without addressing maritime issues that had sparked the war.

• Significance: Marked the end of hostilities and the beginning of improved U.S.–British relations; affirmed American independence.

Native Creation Stories

Cultures Represented: Salinan (California) and Cherokee (Southeast)

Key Themes:

• Spiritual power in nature: Both stories emphasize the sacredness of the natural world.

• Salinan Story: Bald Eagle creates man from clay and woman from a feather. Coyote tests sexual union, nearly dies, but survives—establishing human reproduction.

• Cherokee Story: Earth formed from mud brought by Water Beetle. Buzzard shapes mountains and valleys with wingbeats. Sun is raised to seven handbreadths to regulate heat. Only animals and trees that stayed awake for seven nights gain special powers (e.g., owls, evergreens).

• Human origin: Begins with a brother and sister; rapid reproduction is curbed to one child per year.

Important to Remember:

• Creation stories reflect cosmology, morality, and ecological awareness.

• Emphasis on balance, ritual, and spiritual hierarchy in nature.

Journal Of Columbus, 1492

Perspective: Columbus’s first impressions of Indigenous peoples

Key Themes:

• Initial contact: Columbus describes the natives as generous, curious, and physically attractive.

• European assumptions: He sees them as potential servants and easy converts to Christianity.

• Material interest: Obsessed with finding gold; interprets signs and rumors to locate it.

• Colonial mindset: Believes with 50 men he could subjugate the entire population.

• Cultural misunderstandings: Natives handle swords by the blade, unaware of their danger.

Important to Remember:

• Columbus’s journal reveals early colonial attitudes: paternalism, exploitation, and religious zeal.

• His descriptions shaped European perceptions of the New World and its peoples.

Bartolome de la Casas, 1542

Perspective: Spanish priest and reformer condemning colonial brutality

Key Themes:

• Moral defense of natives: Describes them as peaceful, innocent, and receptive to Christianity.

• Spanish cruelty: Compares Spaniards to wild beasts; accuses them of genocide and enslavement.

• Depopulation: Claims tens of millions killed across the Caribbean and mainland.

• Economic motives: Gold and greed drive the violence.

• Witness testimony: Las Casas saw atrocities firsthand and appealed to the Spanish crown.

Important to Remember:

• Las Casas’s account is a foundational critique of colonialism.

• His writings fueled European rivalries and humanitarian arguments against Spanish rule.

Thomas Morton on New England Natives, 1637

Perspective: English settler offering both praise and critique

Key Themes:

• Admiration of lifestyle: Notes Native generosity, hospitality, mobility, and resourcefulness.

• Cultural comparisons: Uses Native customs to critique English society (e.g., youth respect elders).

• Material simplicity: Natives value utility over luxury; share possessions communally.

• Spiritual ambiguity: Suggests some “correspondence with the Devil” via healing rituals.

• Environmental stewardship: Controlled burns to manage land and prevent overgrowth.

Important to Remember:

• Morton’s account is complex and ambivalent—part ethnography, part social commentary.

• Reveals how English perceptions of Natives were shaped by both admiration and fear.

The Case for English Colonization, 1584, Richard Hakluyt

Purpose: Persuade Queen Elizabeth I to support English colonization in the Americas.

Key Arguments:

• Religious Expansion: Colonization would spread Protestant Christianity and counter Catholic Spanish influence.

• Economic Revival: England’s trades were “beggerly or dangerous”; colonies would restore commerce by accessing goods from Europe, Africa, and Asia.

• Employment & Industry: Colonies would absorb idle laborers and boost domestic production.

• Strategic Advantage: Colonies could disrupt Spanish dominance, especially in the Indies and Newfoundland fisheries.

• Naval Power: Expansion would strengthen England’s navy and maritime industries.

• Territorial Claims: Hakluyt argued England had a stronger claim to North America than Spain, especially from Florida to the Arctic Circle.

• Moral Justification: He condemned Spanish cruelty in the Indies and positioned England as a more humane alternative.

• Urgency: Warned that delay could allow rival nations to seize strategic locations first.

Most Important Detail: Hakluyt framed colonization as a moral, religious, economic, and geopolitical imperative—laying the ideological groundwork for English imperialism.

John Lawson on Native Americans, 1709

Context: Lawson’s exploration of the Carolinas and his observations of Native life.

Key Observations:

• Hospitality: Santee Indians welcomed Lawson’s party with food and warmth, including barbecued turkey and bear oil.

• Landscape & Ecology: He described rich swamps, fertile soil, and abundant wildlife—ideal for settlement.

• Native Skills: Indigenous hunters were expert marksmen and gun modifiers, showing technical ingenuity.

• Diet & Lifestyle: Turkeys were plentiful, but monotony set in; possum was preferred over turkey at times.

• Social Structure: Women engaged in games using grain as counters; leaders hosted guests with pride.

• Disease Impact: Smallpox had devastated Native populations, especially those who traded with Europeans.

• Cultural Exchange: Despite European influence, many Native practices remained intact, including food preparation and communal living.

Most Important Detail: Lawson’s account reveals both the richness of Native life and the early signs of cultural disruption due to disease and colonization.

Gaspesian Man Defends His Way of Life, 1691 - Chrestien Le Clercq’s

Speaker: A Gaspesian man responding to missionary Chrestien Le Clercq’s push for European-style living.

Core Arguments:

• Mobility & Freedom: Wigwams are portable and allow freedom of movement—unlike European houses.

• Contentment vs. Labor: Gaspesians are happier with little, while Europeans labor endlessly for comfort.

• Critique of Colonialism: Questions why Europeans leave their “paradise” if it’s so superior.

• Health & Longevity: Claims Gaspesians lived longer before adopting European diets and habits.

• Cultural Pride: Asserts that Indigenous people are more powerful and happy than the French, who rely on Native resources like cod and beaver.

• Spiritual Autonomy: Rejects the notion that they live “without religion or order,” defending their own values and social systems.

Most Important Detail: This is a rare and powerful Indigenous critique of colonial arrogance, flipping the narrative to show European dependence and Indigenous resilience.

John Winthrop, City on a Hill, 1630

Context: Sermon delivered aboard the Arbella before arriving in Massachusetts Bay.

Key Themes:

• Divine Social Order: Winthrop explains that inequality (rich vs. poor) is divinely ordained to foster interdependence and spiritual growth.

• Christian Unity: Urges settlers to live in mutual love, sacrifice, and humility—“knit together as one man.”

• Covenant with God: The colony is bound by a sacred covenant; failure to uphold it will bring divine punishment.

• “City on a Hill”: Massachusetts Bay must serve as a moral example to the world; all eyes are upon them.

Most Important Detail: The “city on a hill” metaphor encapsulates the Puritan vision of moral exceptionalism and collective accountability.

The Voyage, 1684 - Francis Daniel Pastorius

Context: German immigrant recounts his harrowing journey to Pennsylvania.

Key Details:

• Voyage Hardships: Ten weeks at sea with storms, broken masts, seasickness, and injuries.

• Health Issues: Passengers suffered from infections, falls, and even insanity; one man was attacked by a whale.

• Poor Provisions: Rations were meager and rancid—salted meat and fish barely edible.

• Advice to Future Travelers: Bring your own food, negotiate with captains, and choose ships that sail directly to Philadelphia.

Most Important Detail: Pastorius’s account reveals the brutal reality of transatlantic migration and the resilience required to survive it

Recruiting Settlers to Carolina, 1666 - Robert Horne

Purpose: Promotional pamphlet to attract English settlers to Carolina.

Key Selling Points:

• Religious Freedom: “Liberty of Conscience” promised to all.

• Land Incentives: 100 acres per free person, 50 per servant/slave, with minimal rent.

• Political Rights: Colonists elect their own assembly and governor (limited to 3-year terms).

• Social Mobility: Appeals to younger sons of gentry and laborers seeking fortune.

• Gender Appeal: Promises marriage prospects for single women under 50.

Most Important Detail: Horne paints Carolina as a land of opportunity, liberty, and upward mobility—ideal for ambitious settlers of all classes.

Letter From Carolina, 1682 - Thomas Newe

Context: Personal letter describing life in Carolina, contrasting Horne’s idealism.

Key Observations:

• Disease & “Seasoning”: Settlers endure illness upon arrival—few die, but many suffer.

• Conflict with Native Americans: English traders armed rival tribes, sparking war and disrupting fur trade.

• Agricultural Progress: Soil is fertile; settlers grow English fruits and herbs, raise hogs and cows.

• Economic Potential: Carolina’s proximity to Barbados makes it ideal for pork and corn exports.

• Settler Struggles: Early colonists were poor tradesmen with little farming knowledge; progress was slow.

Most Important Detail: Newe’s letter offers a sobering counterpoint to Horne’s promises, showing the challenges of disease, conflict, and survival in early Carolina

Equiano, The Middle Passage, 1789 - Olaudah Equiano

Context: Autobiographical account by Equiano, a formerly enslaved African, describing his forced voyage across the Atlantic.

Key Details:

• Horrific Conditions: Overcrowding, stench, and heat below deck caused suffocation and disease.

• Emotional Trauma: Equiano was terrified by the white sailors and the ship’s motion; he believed he was going to be eaten.

• Suicide Attempts: Some captives jumped overboard rather than endure the suffering.

• Brutality: Crew members whipped and tortured enslaved people for minor infractions.

• Cultural Shock: Equiano was astonished by European technology and customs, which deepened his sense of alienation.

Most Important Detail: Equiano’s vivid testimony exposes the dehumanizing violence of the transatlantic slave trade and gives voice to the enslaved experience from within.

Rose Davis, On Slavery, 1715

Context: Court ruling in Maryland sentencing Rose Davis, a mixed-race woman, to lifelong slavery.

Key Details:

• Legal Precedent: The court ruled that Davis inherited her enslaved status from her mother, despite her white father.

• Racial Logic: The decision reinforced the principle of partus sequitur ventrem—status follows the mother.

• Gender & Race: Davis’s case shows how colonial law targeted women of African descent to perpetuate slavery.

• Social Implications: It reflects the tightening racial boundaries and codification of slavery in the early 18th century.

Most Important Detail: Davis’s sentencing illustrates how colonial courts institutionalized racial slavery through maternal lineage, entrenching lifelong bondage.

War Journal, 1759 - Gibson Clough

Context: Diary entries from a Massachusetts soldier during the French and Indian War.

Key Details:

• Military Life: Clough describes long marches, poor food, and harsh weather.

• Combat & Casualties: He witnessed skirmishes, deaths, and the emotional toll of war.

• Morale & Religion: Soldiers prayed and attended sermons; Clough often reflected on divine protection.

• Colonial Identity: His writings show pride in British victory and a growing sense of American distinctiveness.

Most Important Detail: Clough’s journal offers a personal lens into colonial warfare, blending hardship, faith, and emerging patriotism.

Native Reflections on French and English, 1765 - Alibamo Mingo

Context: Diplomatic speech by a Choctaw leader evaluating European powers after the Seven Years’ War.

Key Details:

• Strategic Diplomacy: Mingo compares British and French treatment of Native peoples, noting broken promises and shifting alliances.

• Critique of British: He accuses them of arrogance and failure to honor agreements.

• French Favoritism: The French are remembered as more generous and respectful.

• Call for Unity: Mingo urges Native nations to remain strong and cautious in dealings with Europeans.

Most Important Detail: Mingo’s speech reveals Native agency and political insight, challenging European narratives of Indigenous passivity.

Jonathan Edwards, 1741

Context: Sermon from the Great Awakening, emphasizing personal salvation and divine judgment.

Key Themes:

• Emotional Preaching: Edwards uses vivid imagery of hellfire and damnation to stir repentance.

• Human Sinfulness: He portrays humanity as inherently depraved and deserving of punishment.

• Urgency of Conversion: Salvation is immediate and personal; delay risks eternal damnation.

• Spiritual Awakening: His sermon sparked intense religious fervor and mass conversions.

Most Important Detail: Edwards’s revivalist message helped ignite the Great Awakening, reshaping American religious life with emotional intensity and evangelical zeal.

Thomas Paine, 1776 - Common Sense

Key Themes:

• Radical critique of monarchy: Paine denounces kings as unnatural and hereditary succession as absurd.

• Universal appeal: Frames America’s cause as the cause of all mankind.

• Government as a necessary evil: Society is a blessing, but government—even at its best—is only a tool to protect rights.

• Call to action: Urges Americans to reject tyranny and create a republic based on equality and liberty.

Important to Remember:

• Paine’s pamphlet galvanized public support for independence.

• He argued monarchy was rooted in idolatry and oppression, not divine right.

Declaration of Independence, 1776 - Thomas Jefferson

Key Themes:

• Natural rights: “Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness” are unalienable.

• Consent of the governed: Governments derive power from the people.

• Right to revolution: When government becomes destructive, people have the right to abolish it.

• List of grievances: King George III is accused of tyranny—taxation without consent, military abuses, obstruction of justice, and inciting violence.

Important to Remember:

• The Declaration is both a political justification and a philosophical manifesto.

• Its core idea—“all men are created equal”—became a touchstone for future reform movements.

Boston King, Securing Freedom, 1798

Perspective: Former enslaved man and Black Loyalist
Key Themes:

• Freedom through British service: King escapes slavery by joining British forces, who promised liberty to enslaved people.

• Harsh realities: Describes illness, hunger, and fear during wartime.

• Post-war exile: After the war, King resettles in Nova Scotia and later Sierra Leone, facing continued hardship.

Important to Remember:

• King’s account reveals how the Revolution offered conflicting promises of freedom—especially for Black Americans.

• Highlights the loyalist experience and the global dimensions of the war.

Abigail Adams, 1776

Correspondence: Abigail Adams to John Adams, and his reply
Key Themes:

• “Remember the Ladies”: Abigail urges John to include women’s rights in the new laws.

• Warning of rebellion: She jokes that women will rebel if excluded from representation.

• John’s dismissive tone: He laughs off her request, calling it a “Despotism of the Peticoat.”

• Limits of revolutionary ideals: Reveals how liberty was narrowly defined—excluding women.

Important to Remember:

• Abigail’s letter is an early feminist critique of patriarchal power.

• John’s response shows the gender boundaries of revolutionary change.

James Madison, On Religious Taxes, 1785

Purpose: A powerful argument against state-sponsored religion in response to a Virginia bill proposing tax support for Christian teachers.

Key Themes:

• Religious liberty as a natural right: Madison argues that religion must be left to individual conscience, not regulated by the state.

• Danger of government entanglement: State support of religion leads to corruption of both church and government.

• Historical precedent: Cites past abuses where religious establishments led to persecution and division.

• Equality of all beliefs: Defends the rights of all sects, including non-Christians, to be free from state coercion.

Important to Remember:

• Madison’s essay laid the groundwork for the First Amendment.

• It’s a foundational text for separation of church and state in American political thought.

George Washington Farewell Address, 1796

Purpose: Washington’s final message to the nation as he stepped down from the presidency.

Key Warnings:

• Avoid political parties: He feared they would divide the nation and lead to despotism.

• Beware foreign entanglements: Urged neutrality in European conflicts and warned against permanent alliances.

• Preserve national unity: Warned against regional divisions (North vs. South, East vs. West).

• Promote education and morality: Argued that religion and morality are essential to public virtue and republican government.

Important to Remember:

• Washington’s address became a guiding document for U.S. foreign policy and political culture.

• His emphasis on unity, neutrality, and civic virtue shaped early American identity.

Natives Seek Peace, 1786

Context: A coalition of Native nations (including Shawnee, Delaware, and others) appeals to the U.S. government.

Key Themes:

• Call for peace and justice: Native leaders express a desire to end hostilities and live in peace.

• Land sovereignty: They assert that land was taken unjustly and demand recognition of their territorial rights.

• Critique of broken treaties: Accuse the U.S. of violating agreements and failing to restrain settlers.

• Desire for mutual respect: Emphasize shared humanity and the need for fair treatment.

Important to Remember:

• This document reflects Native diplomacy and resistance to U.S. expansionism.

• It highlights the early struggle for Indigenous sovereignty in the face of settler colonialism.

Jefferson and Race, 1788

Focus: Jefferson’s views on race and society

Key Themes:

• Scientific racism: Jefferson argues that Black people are inherently inferior in intellect and aesthetics.

• Physical and mental comparisons: Claims differences in skin color, odor, sleep patterns, and emotional depth.

• Cultural bias: Dismisses Black artistic and intellectual contributions, while praising Native creativity.

• Obstacle to emancipation: Suggests that racial differences make integration impossible, advocating removal after emancipation.

Important to Remember:

• Jefferson’s writing reflects early American racial ideology used to justify slavery.

• His views were influential in shaping white supremacist thought in the new republic.

Benjamin Bannnker, Response to Jefferson 1791

Focus: Banneker’s letter challenging Jefferson’s racist assumptions

Key Themes:

• Appeal to Enlightenment ideals: Banneker invokes natural rights and reason to argue for racial equality.

• Personal example: As a free Black scientist and mathematician, Banneker embodies intellectual capability.

• Moral challenge: Urges Jefferson to reconsider his views and act justly toward enslaved people.

• Use of Jefferson’s own words: Quotes the Declaration of Independence to highlight hypocrisy.

Important to Remember:

• Banneker’s letter is a powerful rebuttal to Jefferson’s racism, using logic and moral persuasion.

• It’s a landmark in African American intellectual history, asserting dignity and equality.

Tecumseh’s Confederacy, 1810

Focus: Native resistance to U.S. expansion

Key Themes:

• Pan-Indian unity: Tecumseh calls for all Native nations to unite against land cessions.

• Spiritual and historical claim: Asserts that the land was given by the Great Spirit to all Native peoples.

• Rejection of treaties: Declares that no tribe has the right to sell land without unanimous consent.

• Critique of white encroachment: Describes settlers as greedy and destructive.

Important to Remember:

• Tecumseh’s message is a bold assertion of Indigenous sovereignty and solidarity.

• His leadership helped inspire resistance movements across Native communities.