AP Psychology Unit 5 - Memory Flashcards

Memory

The persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information

Encoding

The processing of information into the memory system; taking the information in

Storage

The retention of encoded information over time

Retrieval

The process of getting information out of memory storage; Accessing the information

Automatic Processing

unconscious encoding of information such as space, time, and well learned information, such as word meaning - Implicit

Effortful Processing

Encoding that requires attention and conscious information - Explicit

Rehearsal

The conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage

Chunking

Organizing items into smaller, more manageable units

Visual Encoding

Pictures, Imagery; often remembered the best

Acoustic encoding

Sound, especially the sound of words

Semantic Encoding

Encoding of meaning, includes the meaning of words

Recall

Retrieving the information from your memory; ex: fill in the blank test without a word bank

Recognition

Identifying the target memory form possible choices; ex: multiple choice tests

Sensory Memory

The immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

Short term Memory

Activated memory that holds a few items briefly for about 30 seconds before the information is stored or forgotten (about 7 items, ±2)

Long term Memory

The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system; includes knowledge, skills, and experiences

Iconic Memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli (George Sperling)

Echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli

Working memory

short term memory that we are paying attention to and rehearsing

explicit memory

Memory for information we can intentionally recall:

• episodic memories

• flashbulb memories

• semantic memories

Episodic memories

memories for personal events in a specific time and place

flashbulb memory

a memory of an emotional, often traumatic event, where details are very clear in memory

semantic memories

memory for general facts and concepts not linked to a specific time

implicit memory

automatic, subconscious memory:

• procedural memories

• emotional memories

procedural memories

motor skills and habits

emotional memories

learned emotional responses to various stimuli

hippocampus

creates and helps to store new memories

cerebellum

stores procedural memories, motor skills, and coordinated movements

retrieval cues

stimuli that helps retrieve information from LTM

State dependent memory

putting yourself in the same state of mind may help memory retrieval - depends on you and how you feel

context dependent memory

putting yourself in the same location or situation may help memory retrieval - depends on location or actions

mood congruent memory

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current mood, good or bad

serial position effect

people tend to recall the first items - primacy effect - and last items - recency effect - in a list, but forget the middle items

Hermann Ebbinghaus

developed the forgetting curve, also known as the retention curve or Ebbinghaus curve, which measures the decline of memory over time

interference

sometimes memories block each other from being encoded, stored, or retrieved properly

• proactive interference

• retroactive interference

proactive interference

when a NEW MEMORY is blocked

Retroactive interference

when an OLD MEMORY is blocked

Amnesia

sever memory loss

• anterograde amnesia

• retrograde amnesia

anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories

• forgetting everything after an accident

retrograde amnesia

an inability to retrieve information from one’s past

• forgetting everything before an accident

Elizabeth Loftus

• does research in memory construction and eye-witness testimony

• memories very based on wording of questions - framing

• incorporating misleading information into memory

concepts

mental groupings of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

prototypes

best example of a category

schemas

generalizations and mental representations about people, places, and things, which provide automatic thought patterns and opinions

divergent thinking

thinking outside the box; looking for multiple solutions to a problem

convergent thinking

narrowing down the possible solutions to determine the single best solution

Trial and error

involves trying various possible solutions until one works

Algorithm

a logical rule or procedure that guarantees a solution if done correctly

Heuristics

simple thinking strategies, rules of thumb which use short cuts to save time, but do not guarantee a solution or answer

Availability heuristic

thinking that is based on what is present or available in one’s mind; available information at that moment a person has to form an opinion or make a choice

Representative heuristic

thinking that is based on opinions or thoughts that were previously formed, based on how well a topic is known

confirmation bias

the tendency to focus on information that only supports one’s thinking or beliefs

fixation

the inability to see a problem from a new perspective

functional fixedness

the inability to see other uses for an object

mental set

the tendency to approach problems using a mindset that has previously worked

framing

how a problem is presented to us can influence our thinking

belief perseverance

the tendency to cling to our beliefs in the face of contrary evidence

metacognition

thinking about thinking; the ability to control your own thoughts or to be aware of your own thoughts

Language

a flexible system of symbols that enables us to communicate our ideas, thoughts, and feelings; non-humans communicate through signs

phonemes

the smallest distinct sound unit in a spoken language

morpheme

the smallest unit that carries a meaning; may be a word or part of a word

grammar

system of rules in a language that enable us to communicate with and understand others

• syntax

• semantics

syntax

consists of the rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences

semantics

the set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences

Babbling stage

beginning at 4 months, the infant spontaneously utters various sounds

One word stage

beginning at or around his/her first birthday, a child starts to speak one word at a time and is able to make family members understand

two word stage

before the second year, a child starts to speak in two-word sentences; also known as telegraphic speech

longer phrases

after telegraphic speech, children begin utter longer phrases with syntactical sense

overgeneralization

when young children will make errors in syntax, often due to exceptions to syntactical rules

aphasia

impairment of language

Noam Chomsky

argues that all languages share some basic elements, which he calls universal grammar, and that we are born with a predisposition to learn grammar rules; calls it the LANGUAGE ACQUISITION DEVICE

Benjamin Lee Whorf

believed that language determines the way we think; he called his theory LINGUSTIC DETERMINISM